Access to the territory and push backs

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The sections below describe the numerous hurdles faced by migrants and asylum seekers in accessing Spanish territory and subsequently the asylum procedure. This includes incidents of push backs, collective expulsions, police violence (especially on the Moroccan side of the border), bilateral agreements with third countries to swiftly return persons back, and dangerous attempts by the concerned individuals to reach Spanish territory or cross over the border fences.

In December 2022, Ministers and high-level representatives of the partner countries and organisations of the Rabat Process met in Cádiz for the 6^th Ministerial Conference of the Euro-African Dialogue on Migration and Development (the so called ‘Rabat Process’) to adopt the Dialogue’s new multi-annual cooperation programme for the next five years (2023-2027). During the event, the Cadiz Action Plan was adopted: it addresses five action areas, including on regular migration and mobility, on asylum and protection of persons in need of international protection, and on prevention and effective reduction of irregular migration, fight against migrant smuggling and trafficking in human beings.^[2]

In a meeting held in March 2023, the five members (Spain, Italy, Malta, Greece and Cyprus) of the Mediterranean Alliance agreed on preventing migrants’ deaths by impeding irregular departures from countries of origin through the reinforcement of bilateral agreements with third countries, as well as by increasing returns.^[3]

A study published by the Centre Delàs d’Estudis per la Pau reported about all the companies, including financial institutions, that have funded the militarisation and increased surveillance at the borders in the Mediterranean, including the Spanish borders in Ceuta and Melilla.^[4]

In May, five organisations accused France of violating the rights of migrants at the French-Spanish border.^[5] In addition, eight organisations requested the European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF) to open an investigation on the possible use by Spain of the EU funds in activities violating human rights at the Southern borders.^[6]

A report published in July by EuroMed Rights and State Watch showcases the increase in funding for reinforcing borders through technology during recent years, and notably how Spain’s share will increase by 34% for the period 2021-2027, compared to the previous period (2014-2020), to reach some € 325 million.^[7] In addition, it highlights how the Fundación Por Causa has been investigating the industry of migration control since 2020, and the working group of Spanish organisations coordinated by CEAR, aimed at monitoring the use of AMIF and IBMF funds for border control, especially in Ceuta and Melilla.

In April 2023, the National Police has been equipped with different technical tools including live scans, with the aim of speeding up the fingerprinting procedure.^[8]

The political and social crisis in Senegal which led to riots and deaths in June 2023 produced an increase in the number of boats departing from the country to reach the Canary Islands.^[9]

In view of the Spanish Presidency of the Council of the EU during the second semester of 2023, Amnesty International called the Spanish Government to foster, among others, effective migration and asylum policies, centred around rescuing persons in the sea, as well as the sharing of responsibilities among Member States in the protection of refugees.^[10]

In May, the UNHCR launched a campaign on LinkedIn asking to end pushbacks, which are an illegal practice according to international and European law.^[11]

In June, the ‘Minerva’ operation started in the Gibraltar Strait, concretely in the cities of Algeciras, Tarifa and Ceuta, with the aim of fighting against trafficking in persons and irregular migration. The operation was led by the Spanish National Police and coordinated by Frontex, involving police officers from 16 European countries, and lasted until the beginning of September.^[12] During 2022 the operation led to the 2,034 identifications in more than 1,900 interventions.

In January 2024, Frontex threatened to leave Spain, if the Government would not sign the agreement with the EU Agency. According to the information available, it seems that Spain is resisting in signing the agreement and the conditions set forth by Frontex, especially due to concerns regarding potential violations of migrants’ right to privacy in terms of data that should be shared with the EU Agency.[13] Despite these initial concerns, an agreement was signed at the end of the same month.[14]

A report published in the same month by the Centre Delàs and Irídia questions the work and budget of Frontex since its creation, the human rights violations committed by the agency in different EU orders, and especially the lack of an independent monitoring of its activities.[15]

According to the information released by the Moroccan Minister of Interior, Morocco rescued around 2,000 migrants attempting to reach the Canary Islands between mid-May and mid-July, and thanks to its surveillance of the coasts,^[16] prevented 25,519 migrants from departing from its territory during the first five months of 2023.^[17]

Despite this, the lack of coordination in maritime rescues between the Moroccan and Spanish Governments has been identified as the cause of deaths on the route to the Canary Islands.^[18]

On the occasion of the World Refugee Day, the NGO ‘Diaconia’ launched the documentary series ‘Vidas en tránsito’ (Lives in transit), which is made of 12 videos in which 12 refugees count their lives and the reasons to flee their countries and apply for asylum.^[19]

At the end of October, an Egyptian national arrived to Bilbao hidden in the hold of a plane and applied for asylum on grounds of religious persecution. The Spanish Government denied his asylum application and returned him to Egypt.^[20]

In connection with the situation of bad conditions and overcrowding at the ad hoc spaces for asylum seekers at the Madrid Barajas Airport (for more information, see ‘Conditions in border facilities’), in February 2024 the National Police dismantled a smuggling network which facilitated the entrance to Spain of migrants from Senegal who had to impersonate minors and to apply for asylum at the airport.[21]

Arrivals in the enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla

The number of persons arriving in Ceuta and Melilla by land in 2023 was 1,234, marking a decrease compared to 2022, when 2,289 persons entered the enclaves. In addition, a total of 273 personas arrived by sea to the enclaves, with 206 reaching Melilla (representing a +37% increase compared to 2022), and 67 Ceuta (a 57% decrease compared to the previous year).

Source: Ministerio del Interior, ‘Inmigración irregular 2023. Datos acumulados del 1 de enero al 31 de diciembre’, January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/3wpzt6se.

In recent years, the main obstacles regarding access to the Spanish territory have been faced at the Ceuta and Melilla borders and checkpoints. These obstacles are mainly due to the impossibility for asylum seekers to cross the border and exit Morocco. There are several reported cases concerning refusal of entry, refoulement, collective expulsions and push backs, including incidents involving hundreds of people throughout, that continued throughout 2023. In its 2022 annual report, the Spanish Ombudsperson confirmed the impossibility for many persons fleeing their countries and seeking asylum to access in a regular and safe manner Ceuta and Melilla.^[22] Similarly, the NGO ‘CEAR’ reiterated that persons from Sub-Saharan countries cannot access in a safe and regular manner the asylum offices located at the borders in Ceuta and Melilla. Thus, they resort to try and access Spain from Morocco by jumping the fence or by boat.^[23] The NGO continued to express concerns on pushbacks in Ceuta and Melilla.[24]

One of the ways used by migrants and asylum seekers to enter the territory is the attempt to climb border fences in groups. The increasing number of attempts to jump border fences is linked to the fact that migrants and asylum seekers, and especially Sub-Saharan nationals, still face significant obstacles in accessing the asylum procedure at Spanish borders, as a result of border controls exercised by the Moroccan police on the Moroccan side of the border.^[25] This can be illustrated when looking at data provided by the Government on asylum claims lodged at the border, which indicates that no asylum application was made at Ceuta’s border crossing, and that persons from sub-Saharan countries are underrepresented among the nationalities of asylum seekers at Melilla’s border (see section on Access to the Territory).

In October 2023, a migrant entered Melilla using a paraglider. This marked the second time in 10 months that a migrant used such a mean to enter the city.^[26]

During the 2023 International Day in Support of Victims of Torture, different organisations submitted to the UN Committee against Torture a shadow report documenting the violations of the UN Convention against Torture committed by Spain. Among them, the NGOs denounced the mistreatments and the excessive use of force in the pushbacks occurring at the borders of Ceuta and Melilla as amounting to torture according to international principles and standards.^[27]

Following renovations at the Ceuta and Melilla fences that started in 2019 in order to remove the steel wire, different organisations have reported that the height of the fences was increased by 30%, thus further increasing the risk for life and safety for those attempting the jump, and the breaching of human rights standards.^[28] In August 2020 the Government announced an enlargement of the asylum post at the Melilla border with a budget of €138,000,^[29] and of the asylum post in Ceuta with a budget of €125,000, despite the fact that the latter has never been used since it was opened.^[30] Research carried out by the newspaper Público and the Fundación por Causa denounced the shadow industry of migration control in Spain, referring to more than € 660 million in 5 years, and 1,677 public contracts signed without public tenders.^[31] In July 2022, the Council of Ministers approved the plan to carry out additional renovations to the borderline fence in Ceuta, allocating  a budget of EUR 4 million. Such renovations are part of the Plan to reinforce and modernize the land border protection system in Ceuta and Melilla, which started in 2019.^[32] By October 2023, the renovation works were still ongoing.[33]

Similarly to the previous update of the report, which provided a list of incidents at the border in 2022, the following list provides an overview of several incidents that were reported at the border in 2023 and at the beginning of 2024:

• As detailed in the 2022 AIDA report, on 24 June 2022, around 2,000 persons attempted to enter Melilla from Morocco by jumping the fence, resulting in 37 persons dead and hundreds injured, while 133 individuals managed to enter the Spanish enclave.^[34] Despite different organisations expressing concerns regarding the use of indiscriminate violence in border management activities^[35] and asking for an independent investigation to be carried out in order to clarify the situation and to ascertain political accountability,^[36] in December 2022 the Public Prosecutor decided to close the file on the case and declared the Minister of Interior unconnected to the deaths, which were considered to be the responsibility of the Moroccan authorities, but decided to open a file against the officers who attacked and hit migrants with stones.^[37] More than 150 organisations denounced said decision for allowing impunity for national authorities.^[38] On the occasion of the launch of its 2022 annual report on Spain in January 2023, Human Rights Watch expressed concerns over the country’s response to the incident in Melilla and what could happen in the future in relation to pushbacks.^[39] In a hearing held at the European Parliament in January 2023, the Spanish Minister of Justice stated that the incident had been closed by the Public Prosecutor Office following a thorough investigation.^[40] In view of the high level meeting between Morocco and Spain, in February 2023 Amnesty International called the two countries to end the policy of impunity and exceptionality in place at the borders of Ceuta and Melilla, and installed 15 human shapes in front of the Presidency of the Spanish Government, to commemorate the deaths of the migrants on 24 June 2022.^[41] During the same month, the Congress approved a reprobation against the Minister of Interior for how he managed the situation that occurred that day in Melilla.^[42] The Spanish Ombudsperson concluded his investigation of the incident and concluded that the returns carried out that day were illegal according to the law.^[43] At the end of March, the Minister of Interior was heard at a hearing in front of the European Parliament.^[44]

On the occasion of the one-year anniversary of the event, Amnesty International denounced the concealment of the incident, as both the Spanish and Moroccan authorities continued to deny any responsibility and to frustrate any attempt to discover the truth.^[45] The organisation also denounced the lack of efforts in identifying the persons dead and those disappeared, and the impact and suffering that this causes to their family members in terms of truth, justice and compensation. The same claims have been made by the survivors of the event.^[46] CEAR urged the Government to put in place mechanisms to investigate and ascertain accountabilities for the at least 37 persons dead, the 77 disappeared and the 470 pushed back.^[47] 1 year after the event, the Moroccan authorities have identified and buried just one person, and sentenced 61 persons in relation to the jump.^[48] On 24 June, a demonstration with the participation of different NGOs and political parties was organised in Melilla to commemorate the deaths and disappearances, and to ask for justice.^[49]

In June 2023, different NGOs lodged a complaint before the judge in Melilla, asking for a detailed and thorough investigation of the facts that occurred during the jump.^[50] In July, the UN Committee against Torture released findings on four member States, including Spain, and urged the latter to thoroughly and impartially investigate the tragedy that occurred in Melilla in June 2022, to avoid a similar event in the future.^[51]

In December 2023, the NGO ‘CEAR’ criticised the Spanish Government for its lack of transparency in relation to the number of persons who died and disappeared while trying to cross the border on that day, and called for an independent investigation of the event.[52]

In its 2024 annual report, Human Rights Watch denounced that no credible investigation, justice or reparation for those events has been undertaken so far by the Spanish Government.[53]

• In December 2022, a Sudanese young man who was pushed back to Morocco on 24 June 2022 applied for asylum at the Spanish Embassy in Rabat, with the aim of challenging the declarations of the Minister of Interior regarding the possibility to apply for asylum at the Spanish Embassies and Consulates, as well as at the Spanish land borders of Ceuta and Melilla without jumping the fences.^[54] In March 2023, his asylum interview was held at the Spanish embassy in Rabat (Morocco).^[55] In occasion of the one-year anniversary of the jump and the deaths of 24 June 2022, he wrote a letter to the President of the Spanish Government to complain about the lack of a decision on his asylum application after six months since it was lodged.^[56] In December 2023, in the absence of a decision by the Spanish Government on his asylum application after 1 year from its lodging, the asylum applicant lodged an appeal to the National Court (Audiencia Nacional) to ask for a precautionary measure urging his transfer to Spain.^[57] In December 2023, the applicant lodged a claim for precautionary measures at the National Court (Audiencia Nacional), that ruled in favour of his transfer to Spain.[58]
• At the beginning of January 2024, Morocco claimed to have intercepted around 1,100 migrants in different towns close to the Spanish borders, and prevented their entrance to Ceuta and Melilla.^[59]

The above incidents illustrate how migrants and asylum seekers continue resorting to dangerous ways to enter Ceuta and Melilla, sometimes resulting in their deaths. Further incidents at the border are likely to continue in 2024.

The persisting problem of pushbacks (devoluciones en caliente)

The situation at borders and regarding access to territory has gradually worsened since March 2015, after the Spanish government adopted an amendment to the Aliens Act, introducing the possibility to “reject at borders” third-country nationals that are found crossing the border illegally.

The amendment, introduced through the adoption of the Law “on the protection of citizen security”,^[60] includes a specific regulation within the Aliens Act concerning the “Special regime of Ceuta and Melilla”. This regime consists of three elements:

• It rules that “those foreigners who are detected at Ceuta’s and Melilla’s border lines when trying to pass the border’s contentious elements to irregularly cross the border, can be rejected to avoid their illegal entry in Spain”;
• It declares that “these rejections will be realised respecting the international law on human rights and international protection ratified by Spain”;
• Lastly, it states that “international protection claims will be formalised at the ad hoc border point in line with international protection obligations.”

In practice, when a person is found within Spanish border territory, which includes the land between the Moroccan and Spanish border, they are taken outside the Spanish border through existing passages and doors controlled by border guards.

The amendment aimed at legalising the push backs (devoluciones en caliente) practiced in Ceuta and Melilla, and has been criticised for ignoring human rights and international law obligations towards asylum seekers and refugees by several European and international organisations such as UNHCR,^[61] the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights,^[62] and the United Nations Committee against Torture. Critics regard the fact that people are not able to request asylum, and that the law mostly affects groups in vulnerable situation, including unaccompanied minors and victims of trafficking.

These circumstances made Spain one of the European countries with the highest numbers of refusal of entry at the border between 2017 and 2019.

Source: Eurostat; migr_eirfs.

In previous years, several cases have been brought to court to challenge the conduct of Spanish border control patrols and guards.

N.D and N.T v Spain

One case before the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) concerned two Sub-Saharan men – from Mali and the Ivory Coast respectively – who alleged having been summarily and collectively expelled from Spanish territory on 13 August 2014 as part of a group of over 75 individuals. On 3 October 2017, the ECtHR held unanimously that there had been a violation of the prohibition of collective expulsions of the right to an effective remedy in conjunction with said prohibition under Article 4 Protocol 4 and Article 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).^[64]

On 13 February 2020, the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights (GC) published its judgment in the case of N.D and N.T v Spain concerning the immediate return of the two men to Morocco after attempting to cross the border of the Melilla enclave,^[65] overturning the 2017 judgment. The GC addressed whether the removal of the applicants amounted to an expulsion or ‘non-admission’ of entry.^[66]

Moreover, the GC was not convinced that the State had failed to provide a genuine and effective access to means of legal entry, and concluded that the applicants had in fact placed themselves in jeopardy by participating in storming the border rather than using the existing procedures. In particular, the GC observed that the applicants could have applied for visas or for international protection at a border crossing point. It concluded that the applicants’ expulsions did not violate Article 4 Protocol 4.^[67]

Furthermore, the GC found that the applicants placed themselves in an unlawful situation by deliberately attempting to enter Spain as part of a large group rather than using available legal procedures. The lack of available individual procedures to challenge the removal was therefore deemed a consequence of the applicant’s unlawful attempt to gain entry. The GC held there was no violation of Article 13 in conjunction with Article 4 Protocol 4.^[68]

This GC’s decision has been heavily criticised by civil society organisations and other several stakeholders, including the Progressist Union of Public Prosecutors,^[69] who saw a lost opportunity in condemning the Spanish authorities for their pushback practices at the border.^[70]

In November 2022, Netflix launched the documentary ‘The Gourougou trial’ on the stories of two migrants from Africa, ND & NT, who in 2014 joined other 500 migrants to jump the fence in Melilla from Morocco to enter Spain, and that were pushed back.^[71]

For further details on the case, see AIDA Country Report: Spain 2020 Update.

The Constitutional Court’s ruling of 19 November 2020

On 19 November 2020, the Spanish Constitutional Court (Tribunal Constitucional) endorsed the Organic Law on the protection of citizen security, which establishes a special regime for the rejection at the borders in Ceuta and Melilla.^[72] After analysing the constitutional doctrine and the ECtHR’s jurisprudence, the Constitutional Court concluded that the law is in line with the Spanish Constitution. Regarding specifically the legal framework on Ceuta and Melilla, the Court concluded that the special regime foreseen is constitutional because it is in line with the ECtHR’s jurisprudence on the material execution of a rejection at the border. Nevertheless, the Court underlined the importance of judicial control and effective remedies to appeal a rejection at the border. In addition, the Court stated that a rejection decision at the border should be issued considering all the guarantees provided by national and international law, and that the procedure for allowing or refusing legal entry to Spain must be real and effective. The Court further held that law enforcement officials have to pay particular attention to vulnerable groups (i.e. children, pregnant women and elderly persons).

Following the decision, more than 80 NGOs asked the Government to “put an end to such practices, at least up until a legislative framework is adopted in line with the Constitutional Court’s requirements”.^[73]

Other pushback cases and incidents

Pushback practices in Spain have been strongly condemned in recent years. This includes a decision adopted on 12 February 2019 by the United Nations (UN) Committee on the Rights of the Child regarding the case D.D. vs Spain.^[74]

In February 2014, 15 migrants drowned after attempting to reach the Spanish enclave of Ceuta by sea and were repelled with rubber bullets and smoke grenades by officers from the Guardia Civil. Since then, the so known “El Tarajal” case was decided and removed from the register in different occasions, until in June 2022 the Supreme Court (Tribunal Supremo) rejected the cassation appeals lodged by different NGOs against the decision to remove the case from the register taken by the Provincial Court of Cádiz.^[75] Previous updates of this report provide more details on the case. (See AIDA Country Report on Spain – 2021 and 2020 Updates). In June 2023, the Constitutional Court (Tribunal Constitucional) admitted the appeal lodged by different NGOs against the removal of the case from the register decided by the High Court (Tribunal Supremo) and the Provincial Court of Cádiz.^[76] In February 2024, a 25-year-old Cameroonian national filed a complaint at the UN against Spain, for the multiple violations of the Convention against Torture occurred during the incident.[77]

Since the event in El Tarajal, each year many NGOs, groups of activists and other stakeholders join in Ceuta at the border, in order to commemorate the deaths and strive for justice.

Throughout 2023, and at the beginning of 2024, pushback practices continued to be reported.

The Dutch Council for Refugees started to work, in collaboration with the NGO Caminando Fronteras, on advocating against and exposing pushbacks practices at Spain’s southern borders and the Canary Islands, as well as in improving asylum policies in the country, by training their staff in project management and fundraising.^[78] At the beginning of 2023, the Dutch Council for Refugees selected eight organisations working for refugees and human rights at the European borders (i.e. Spain, Italy, Greece and Poland) to fund and support for one year their projects within the Step Up Fund. The selected NGOs in Spain are Irídia, whose project focuses on monitoring and exposing human rights violations at Spain’s borders together with activists and local organisations on the ground; and Caminando Fronteras whose Step Up project seeks to improve its communication, so that refugees can find the right information and that the media and researchers know how to find Caminando as a reliable source of information.^[79]

In March, a young man from Mali, who entered Spain by jumping the fence in Melilla in March 2022, lost vision from one eye after being struck with a baton by the officers from the Guardia Civil after the crossing. Consequently, he lodged a criminal claim against the Guardia Civil, arguing the treatment amounted to torture.^[80]

In April 2023, the Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe published a report following a country visit to Spain. The report addresses, amongst other things, the rights of refugees, asylum seekers and migrants. The Commissioner deplored the fact that access to protection varies significantly throughout the country and remains very challenging for many refugees and asylum seekers due to long waiting periods to access the asylum procedure, delays in the identification of special vulnerabilities, and obstacles in accessing social rights, including housing and health. She further stressed that there is no genuine and effective access to asylum at the border between Nador (Morocco) and Melilla.^[81]

The Commissioner also reiterated that, despite the right of each country to control its borders and the possible cooperation with other States in doing so, this must be carried out in full compliance with all applicable international human rights standards. As regards the cooperation of Spain with Morocco in the control of common borders, the Commissioner urged Spain to revise the current approach to access to the territory and asylum in Ceuta and Melilla, as well as to stop pushbacks, in order to meet those obligations.

In May, the Spanish Minister of Interior declared that the Government will not breach obligations on border management, and that no policy change in this respect is thus foreseen.^[82]

Following the arrival of around 8,000 migrants within 36-hours in mid-May 2021 – a quarter of them minors – into the city of Ceuta, at least 4,000 of them were immediately expelled by the police,^[83] without any clarity as the procedure followed to carry out the expulsions.^[84] Different human rights organisations denounced this event as a pushback case^[85] that also involved migrant children, and highlighted how no access to information and legal assistance was granted to those affected.^[86] In August 2021, the Ministry of Interior announced having started returning to Morocco the children who had entered Ceuta in May.^[87] However, in February 2022, a judge in Ceuta (Juzgado de lo Contencioso Administrativo número 1) ordered the Government to bring back to Spain the children who were already returned to Morocco, establishing that the returns had been in breach of Spanish legislation, generating a serious risk for the children involved.^[88] In August 2023, some WhatsApp messages exchanged during those days between different Government representatives and the then-Vice-President of Ceuta (who was denounced by the Public Prosecutor Office in June 2022, together with the Government-Delegate in the City for malfeasance in the illegal expulsion of Moroccan children^[89]) were made public.^[90] The leaked messages showed their will to set up a procedure to return the unaccompanied migrant children to Morocco, and to overcome the position of the Public Prosecutor, who was demanding that they respect the rule of law as well as the rights and guarantees foreseen for children by Spanish legislation. In January 2024, the Supreme Court (Tribunal Supremo) ruled that the return to Morocco of around 50 children was illegal according to the Immigration Law.[91] Following the decision, the NGOs ‘Fundación Raíces’ and ‘Coordinadora de Barrios’ informed they will take the appropriate measures to guarantee each child illegally deported is restored in their rights and to repair the damage suffered and the violation of their physical and moral integrity.[92] The association ‘Jueces y Juezas para la Democracia’ (Judges for Democracy) asked the Government to assume responsibility following the Court decision.[93]

In August 2023, a Spanish vessel of the Guardia Civil rescued 168 persons on route to the Canary Islands near Mauritania. The Guardia Civil tried to bring the migrants to the Nuadibú port in Mauritania, but the Mauritanian Government did not allow the disembarkation, despite the agreements on migration established between the two countries.^[94] Afterwards, the migrants were disembarked in Senegal, which the NGO CEAR indicated could constitute a case of collective expulsion.^[95] Similarly, Amnesty International remarked that collective deportations constituted a violation of human rights.^[96]

Bilateral agreements with third countries

Spain has signed different bilateral agreements with third countries such as Mauritania, Algeria, Senegal and Morocco, in order to swiftly return individuals back.

Since 2019, Mauritania has become the main country to receive deportation flights from Spain (chartered by Frontex), inter alia due to the increase of arrivals to the Canary Islands. This is based on a bilateral agreement signed back in 2003.^[97] In January 2020, 72 persons from Mali, out of which at least 14 were asylum seekers, were returned to Mauritania in the framework of a bilateral agreement with Spain, as Mauritania accepts returned migrants who have transited through its territory.^[98] One of the returned persons stated that they had not be been provided food during three days; that they had been abandoned at Mali’s border with Mauritania; and that they were subject to mistreatment by the Mauritanian authorities.^[99] This case of return takes part as one of the seven flights that the Spanish Ministry of Interior has been carrying carried out since June 2019. As denounced by different organisations, these practices amount to indirect pushbacks, are in violation with the no-refoulement principle and are contrary to UNHCR’s call not to return Malians to their country of origin.^[100]

In February 2024, Spain and Mauritania, under the auspices of the EU, signed an agreement for 210 million Euros aimed at, among other objectives, fighting against irregular migration and smuggling.[101]

In November 2020, Spain further resumed the expulsion of migrants, which had been suspended following the COVID-19 spread. Reports of returns from the Canary Islands realised without ensuring proper access to guarantees (i.e. legal assistance) and to the asylum procedure were made also in 2022.^[102] No further information on such cases was available regarding 2023.

In December 2020, Algeria joined Morocco and Mauritania among the countries accepting returns of their nationals from Spain.^[103] Thus, Algerian migrants were returned from Spanish CIEs.^[104] In the same month, Spain increased the deportation of Moroccan migrants arriving to the Canary Islands.^[105] In November 2020, Spain had also reached a similar agreement with Senegal.^[106] Consequently, the Government announced in February 2021 that it would resume return flights to Senegal by the end of the month.^[107] The agreement also foresaw the reinforcement of the Spanish monitoring mechanism in Senegal against irregular migration, through the allocation of a Guardia Civil’s patrol boat and an airplane.^[108] The flight that the Minister of Interior organised at the end of February for repatriating migrants from the Canary Islands to Senegal was finally cancelled due to a COVID-19 outbreak at the CIE of Hoya Fría. It was then rescheduled to 10 March, but it was once more suspended.^[109] Apparently, the difficulties experienced in the organisation of the deportation flights were also due to Senegal’s resistance to carry them out in practice.^[110]

It should be further noted that the Government opened a €10 million tender to airlines wishing to realise return flights from Spain.^[111] Moreover, in 2020, the Minister of Interior announced that it was tripling financial support to African countries, aiming at stopping irregular migration.^[112] In November 2020, the Government also adopted a plan aimed at providing third countries (e.g. Senegal, Mauritania and Morocco) with equipment such as vessels, helicopters and airplanes in order to stop migration and increase expulsions of rejected applicants for international protection.^[113]

In September 2022, Spain and Senegal started negotiations to resume returns of migrants irregularly staying in the Spanish territory.^[114] During the same month, the Directorate-General of the National Police announced the decision to send six systems for the identification of forged documents to Gambia, with the aim of fighting smuggling rings.^[115]

According to a report published in 2022 by the European Migration Network (EMN), Spain has readmission agreements with some African countries (Cape Verde, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea Conakry, Mali, and Niger).^[116] No information has been found on how widely they are applied nor how many persons are readmitted through such agreements.

In April 2023, the Spanish Prime Minister defined Morocco as an essential partner for the management of migration to Spain and to Europe.^[117]

Arrivals by sea

In 2023, 55,618 persons and 1,817 boats reached Spain via sea routes.^[118]

Out of the total number of persons arriving by sea, the vast majority (39,910 persons) disembarked on the Canary Islands, which has become one of the main destinations for boats since the last months of 2019, while 15,435 persons arrived on the mainland and the Balearic Islands. Only a few migrants disembarked in Ceuta (67 persons) and Melilla (206 persons).^[119]

Regarding the number of deaths in the Mediterranean, several figures have been reported. The NGO Caminando Fronteras (Walking Borders) estimates that 6,618 persons died while reaching Spain in 2023, including 6,607 who lost their life on the Canary route.^[120] It further reported that 363 of victims were women, 384 were children, and that a total of 84 vessels disappeared with those 6,618 persons on board. In its 2023 annual report on human rights at the Southern borders, the ‘Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía – APDHA’ denounced that more than 40% of the total number of persons who died on route to Spain registered in the last 35 years occurred in the last 3 years, and that 2021 was the most lethal year so far, with at least 2,126 persons dead.^[121]

In March 2024 the police dismantled a network that offered families of missing migrants false information about their location in exchange for money.[122]

In November 2022, more than 100 organisations proposed to introduce a set of measures for a respectable treatment for migrants dead and disappeared in the sea and for their families. Among other measures, the proposal foresees the creation of an information office of the Ombudsperson, that would oversee providing comprehensive assistance to families of the dead and disappeared, as well as of managing a DNA database connected with Interpol. The proposal, led by the Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), is part of the campaign #VidasSinRastro (lives without track), and was sent to the Spanish Ombudsperson, the Government and to different parliamentary groups.^[123]

In 2021, the Spanish Bar Association published a practical guide for providing legal assistance during arrivals by sea, with the aim of guaranteeing migrants the best service and protecting their rights and liberties.^[124]

In 2022, the Spanish Red Cross implemented a pilot project in the Canary Islands, directed at identifying the persons who disappeared during the migratory maritime route to the archipelago. After investigating 45 shipwrecks, the organisation identified 101 persons disappeared.^[125]

In its 2022 annual report, the Spanish Ombudsperson underlined the increase of women with children in arrivals by sea in the last years, especially to the Canary Islands. The report also indicates that such change in the profile of newcomers has been the object of special interest and analysis by the institution, and that the necessity to improve the coordination among relevant stakeholders as well as the protocol for the humanitarian assistance with an age and gender perspective has been transmitted to the administration.^[126]

A report published by the Programa Ödos^[127] in June 2022 indicates that 61% of the children assisted were girls (mainly accompanied), mostly fleeing due to the risk of being subjected to female genital mutilation.^[128]

In June 2022, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs pushed to consider irregular migration as an ‘hybrid threat’ in the new NATO policy roadmap.^[129]

During 2023, different bodies of persons, including an 8-months-old Algerian baby, who died at sea while reaching Spain by boat, appeared on Spanish beaches sometime after their disappearance.^[130]

In July, the organisation ‘Caminando Fronteras’ asked the Public Prosecutor Office to open an investigation for the crime of failure to provide assistance to 36 persons who died after waiting ten hours to be rescued in their route to the Canary Islands by the Moroccan authorities, while a boat of the Spanish Salvamento Marítimo was at 1 hour navigating distance from the boat in distress.^[131]

Situation on the Canary Islands

As demonstrated by the figures above, boats arrivals to the Canary Islands continued in significant numbers throughout 2023. It is very likely that the Canary Islands will continue to be one of the main point of entry to Spain for migrants and refugees throughout 2024, especially given the increased controls at the Ceuta and Melilla border points and the increased capacity of Morocco to control the Northern part of the country, inter alia through EU funds.^[132] This is also due to the political situation in Senegal.[133]

The ‘Canary route’ continues to be the deadlier route to reach Spain, with 6,607 out of 6,618 registered deaths of migrants trying to reach Spain in 2023 recorded on this route.^[134]

Nevertheless, while the focus has continuously been on the Canary Island during the last years, the so-called ‘Algerian route’ has also recorded many arrivals since 2022, especially to the Balearic Islands, Murcia and Alicante. Such a route registered an increase also in deaths and disappearances in 2023.^[135]

Serious concerns regarding the access to reception, overcrowding and poor living conditions on the Canary Islands are described in the Reception Chapter of this report (see Access and forms of reception conditions). Regarding access to the asylum procedure, several shortcomings were reported in 2020, especially regarding the lack of legal assistance for migrants arriving by sea to the Canary Islands, resulting in important violations of their rights and the law.^[136] In November 2023 the Government of the Canary Islands and the Bar Association of Santa Cruz de Tenerife reached an agreement aiming at assessing and guaranteeing a better quality of the legal assistance provided to migrants arriving by boat to the archipelago.^[137]

According to a thematic report published by the organisation Irídia^[138] in May 2022, the discrimination in accessing rights, the lack of procedural guarantees and the permanent incompliance with existing norms at the borders are the main human rights violations identified by the organisation.^[139]

As mentioned, to support the authorities in the early identification of international protection needs, in capacity building, in registration and assistance to newcomers, UNHCR deployed a team in the archipelago since January 2021. Similarly, EUAA (former EASO) deployed a team of experts to the Canary Islands in March 2021 with the aim of supporting the Spanish authorities to manage the reception centres, in light of the increase in arrivals of migrants and asylum seekers.^[140] The EUAA 2022-2023 operation plan for Spain aims at supporting national authorities in designing and implementing a new reception model, and to ensured that standardised reception processes and procedures are adopted across the country.^[141] Spain has received operational support by the EASO/EUAA since 2021. The 2022-2023 plan was amended in May 2022 to take into account the changes in the operational context in light of the invasion of Ukraine.^[142]

In June 2023, a new operational plan for 2023-2026 was agreed between Spain and the EUAA, which foresees a set of measures aiming at supporting and reinforcing the national reception authorities for the international protection, the temporary protection and the humanitarian assistance systems. In addition, compared to the previous operational plan, the new one foresees support to national authorities to foster common action in reception of unaccompanied migrant children in the Spanish territory, and to enhance the capacity of authorities and practitioners through training and professional development.[143]

Throughout 2023, the EUAA deployed a total of 85 experts in Spain,^[144] 52 of which were temporary agency workers. This included 42 administrative assistants, 15 social workers, 8 reception training experts and 7 asylum and reception programme and project management experts as well as other monitoring, legal and administrative staff (e.g., reception coordinators, vulnerability experts, operation officers, and statisticians). As of 19 December 2023, there were 73 EUAA experts present in Spain, mainly social workers (13) and intermediate reception training experts (8).^[145]

In 2023, the EUAA delivered 94 training sessions to a total of 1,278 experts and personnel of national authorities, relevant partners and EUAA contracted personnel.^[146]

In August 2021, the Government of the Canary Islands, together with the Bar Association and in collaboration with UNHCR, started to implement a project to provide legal assistance to detained persons, migrants and asylum seekers,^[147] which was continued throughout 2022.^[148]

Following a needs assessment realised at the end of 2020, IOM started its operations in the Canary Islands at the beginning of 2021, aiming at addressing the significant increase in arrivals. IOM’s operation is based in Tenerife, where the organisation managed a facility with 1,100 reception places (reduced to 1,054 due to COVID-19 prevention measures). With a staff of 53 employers, IOM provided for humanitarian reception places and direct assistance to migrants reaching the archipelago. The organisation’s work includes provision of legal assistance as well as the identification of vulnerabilities and addressing protection needs.^[149] In June 2022, the organisation finalised its operations in the Canary Islands.

Search and Rescue (SAR) operations

Since April 2015, the NGO CEAR, in coordination with other NGOs (including Accem), is running the campaign ‘UErfanos’ to denounce the deaths in the Mediterranean Sea and the breaches to the right to asylum by the EU, which produce more ‘UEorphans’. The webpage of the campaign contains updated information on number of arrivals and deaths on the route to Europe and Spain.

Maritime Rescue (Salvamento Marítimo), an authority under the Ministry of Transport, is responsible for search and rescue carried out in the search and rescue zone belonging to Spain and Morocco.^[150] The Police (Guardia Civil) usually participates along with the personnel of Maritime Rescue in Almería, but not in Algeciras. The Maritime Rescue always informs the Spanish Red Cross (Cruz Roja Española)^[151] of arrivals. The Spanish Red Cross notifies its Emergency Immediate Response Teams (Equipos de Respuesta Inmediata en Emergencia, ERIE) that operate in Almería, Motril, Málaga, Tarifa and Ceuta, where migrants are taken upon their arrival.

In December 2021, the Government approved the new Plan for Security and Maritime Rescue 2021-2024, with a budget of more than EUR 173 million.^[152]

The ERIE is composed of Red Cross staff and volunteers who are usually medical personnel, nurses and some intercultural mediators. Their first action consists in a health assessment to check the state of health and detect medical needs and the preparation of a health card for each of the newly arrived persons, which contains their personal data. As already mentioned, UNHCR also deployed personnel in different points of arrival in Spain. The main objective of the presence of UNHCR is to work in the field of identification, referral and protection of people who need international protection.

After this health screening, the ERIE distributes food, water, dry clothes and a hygiene kit. Normally, men are separated from women in shelters. The Spanish Red Cross further provides humanitarian and health care at this stage. This process must be carried out within a period of 72 hours in accordance with the maximum term of preventive detention foreseen by the Spanish legal system.

Several worrying developments regarding limitations to search and rescue operations have been noted since the beginning of 2019, notably through the criminalisation of SAR activities carried out by NGOs.

One such example was the persecution of the Spanish activist Helena Maleno, founder of the NGO Caminando Fronteras, accused in 2020 by Salvamento Marítimo of being responsible of the deaths of migrants,^[153] even after the charges of migrant smuggling and human trafficking held against her, which were dropped in March 2019 by the Appeal Court of Tangier.^[154] In April 2021, while entering Morocco through Tangier, where she has been living with her family for 20 years, she was expelled from the country. In an urgent press conference organised after the incident, she has explained the reasons for which these charges were held against her, and urged the Spanish and the Moroccan Governments to stop criminalising her as human rights defender^[155]. Following the incident, 700 organisations and 10,000 persons asked the Spanish Government to protect Helena Maleno.^[156] In November 2021, the World Organisation against Torture included Helena Maleno among those activists in Europe who are criminalised for their solidarity with harassment, assault and torture.^[157]

In January 2021, the Major of Barcelona expressed instead solidarity with NGOs involved in Search and Rescue activities. In the same month, the Municipality announced its intention to intervene as civil party in the criminal procedure in process in Palermo (Italy) against the former Italian Minister of the Interior Matteo Salvini, for impeding the disembarkation of the Open Arms boat in Italy. The Open Arms was carrying 130 migrants and refugees during the summer of 2019.^[158] The judgement started in Palermo in October 2021.^[159] The judgment is still pending at the time of writing of this report; hearings were held in 2022, at the beginning of 2023^[160], and of 2024.^[161]

In September 2022, a senator of the political party Vox asked the Government to investigate some NGOs, which he accused of collaborating with criminal groups in migrants’ smuggling. The Minister of Interior expressed doubts regarding this statement, and responded he should present a formal report if he had evidence to support this claim.^[162]

It should be further noted that, in February 2019, the Spanish Ombudsperson addressed a recommendation to the Ministry of Interior, asking to modify the instructions related to irregular immigrants as they affect possible asylum seekers found in vessels navigating in Spanish territorial waters.^[163] The Minister of Interior accepted the recommendations.^[164] In April 2022 however, the Minister of Interior reverted its decision and refused to adopt the changes proposed by the Ombudsperson.^[165]

In January 2023, the Maritime Captaincy of Valencia opened an administrative procedure against the Spanish NGO rescue vessel ‘Aita Mari’ for certain alleged deficiencies detected 3 years before in Italy and that, according to the NGO managing the vessel, were corrected in the meantime. The Aita Mari risks to be fined with a fee between EUR 60,000 and 80,000.^[166]

The role of Moroccan and Algerian authorities in migration and border control

According to official data, in December 2023 the Moroccan Government declared having impeded the arrival of 70,000 migrants to Spain during the last 3 years, by impeding 70 jumps of the fences of Ceuta and Melilla.^[167] The decrease of arrivals of almost 26% in 2022 compared to 2021 has been connected also to the renewal of the cooperation between Morocco and Spain.^[168] See the 2021 update of the AIDA report for more details on the issue on previous years.

In 2020, Morocco reinforced its controls to prevent migrants from entering Spain,^[169] and the two countries strengthened their alliance during the pandemic in the field of migration control.^[170] Regardless, some tensions between Spain and Morocco were reported throughout 2020 because of the situation in Ceuta and Melilla.^[171] Tensions between the two countries newly increased in May 2021 following the hospitalisation of the Sahrawi leader in Spain. To retaliate, the Moroccan government eased border controls, and around 8,000 persons entered Ceuta, swimming from Moroccan shores.

In November 2020, the Spanish Government announced it would provide the Moroccan Ministry of Interior with 130 vehicles for the purpose of border and migration control.^[172] The tender amounts to €7,150,000 without VAT and the contract lasted 12 months. This tender was part of the programme named “Support to the integrated management of borders and migration in Morocco” that started on 17 April 2019 and ended on 17 April 2022. Overall, it seems that the contract involves a total of €91 million.^[173] Additional information on funding to Morocco indicates that a total of 118 million Euros deriving from EU funding have been granted so far by Spain since 2019 to the beginning of 2024. The new allocation of funding seems to relate to the maintenance of three patrol boats of the Guardia Civil, five refrigerated trucks, and 190 thermal cameras.[174]

As part of such programme, in May 2021 the Council of Ministers approved the allocation of EUR 30 million to the Moroccan Minister of Interior, for collaborating in funding the police with the aim of stop migrants before trying to cross the Mediterranean and reaching Spain.^[175]

Following the XII High Level Meeting between Spain and Morocco held at the beginning of February 2023, the two countries issued a joint declaration establishing the renewal and reinforcement of the cooperation in the fight against irregular migration, border management, the fight against smuggling and the readmission of migrants in irregular situations.^[176] Additional information on the details of such an agreement were not available at the time of writing of this report.

The closure of the Moroccan borders, along with the COVID-19 pandemic and the Spanish migration policy in the Mediterranean,^[177] are probably the main reasons for the notable increase in arrivals on the Canary Islands registered since the end of 2019, despite the higher risks that such a route involves. In November 2020, the Spanish Government further announced a joint mission with Frontex aimed at limiting arrivals and closing the ‘Canary migratory route’.^[178] In January 2021, Frontex and Spain agreed on renewing the activities of the EU agency for one more year, with 257 officers deployed covering the Gibraltar Strait and the Alborán Sea, as well as the Canary Islands.^[179]

On 17 June 2022, Frontex launched the operation ‘Minerva 2022’ in Algeciras, Tarifa and Ceuta; it lasted until mid-September, with 101 officers deployed by participant States.^[180]  The joint operation ‘Minerva 2023’, led by the Spanish National Police and coordinated by Frontex, was carried out from mid-June to beginning of September, with the participation of 94 experts coming from 16 countries.^[181] During 2022, a total of 2,034 identifications and more than 1,900 police actions were realised.

In addition, Morocco (together with Algeria) became the new route for Sudanese refugees migrating to Europe, due to the serious political instability in Libya, the violence in such country and the militias controlling its territory.^[182]

In March 2022, the President of the Spanish Government changed the longstanding Spanish position on the right to auto determination of Western Sahara, by announcing its support Morocco’s proposal of granting a regime of autonomy to the area, that entails recognition of the Moroccan territorial sovereignty over said territories.^[183] The Association for Human Rights in Andalucía lamented the policy change adopted by the Spanish Government, and called for an immediately rectification of the declaration.^[184] Numerous gathering and demonstrations have been organised in various Spanish cities to support the Sahrawi population and to protest against the new Government’s position.^[185]

Consequently, in June 2022 Algeria suspended the friendship treaty and froze trade with Spain.^[186] In November 2023, Spain and Algeria resumed their economic relationship with the deployment of a new Algerian ambassador in Madrid. This will lead to resume also the cooperation among the two countries on common areas of work, such as prevention of irregular migration and the fight against Jihadism in the Sahel region.^[187]

In April 2022, an agreement on security cooperation and fight against crime reached between Spain and Morocco in February 2019 entered into force, in coincidence with the visit of the Spanish President of the Government to Rabat. The agreement, in force for an indefinite term, provides for the collaboration of the two countries in the fight against different forms of crime, including irregular migration.^[188] Migreurop and EuroMed Rights denounced its content for linking migration to border security and to criminality, with the risk of leading to more rights violations at the borders.^[189]

In August 2022, the EU announced the intention to allocate more than EUR 500 million to Morocco for the period 2021-2027, a budget that is 50% higher than the previous one, including for border management and police cooperation.^[190]

In October 2022, the Council of Ministers authorised a granting of EUR 30 million to Morocco within the international police cooperation framework, with the aim of supporting its deployment of personnel in the fight against smuggling and the migration management.^[191]

In January 2023, the Civil Guard complained for the non-repayable EUR 120 million that the Spanish Government granted to Morocco for the management of borders during 2019 and 2022, and denounced the shortage of the resources received for the same purpose.^[192]

In 2023, the Spanish Prime Minister reiterated the essential role that Morocco has in managing and controlling migration.^[193]

The intensification of migration management efforts by Morocco led to an increase of arrivals from Algeria to Spain (especially to the Balearic Islands).^[194]

Denial of asylum following disembarkation from the Aquarius vessel

In September 2019, the CIAR started to deny asylum to some of the persons rescued in the Mediterranean Sea by the vessel Aquarius in 2018. Similarly, persons disembarked in Barcelona from the Open Arms’ vessel were denied asylum and the right to reception conditions, thus raising heavy criticism from experts.^[195] By March 2020, the trend seemed to be confirmed, as 94% of asylum applications lodged by individuals who arrived with the Aquarius were denied, meaning that just 4 out of 62 cases decided by the CIAR so far have received international protection.^[196] A high number of negative decisions was issued throughout 2020.^[197]

By November 2020, the Spanish government had granted international protection to only 9 persons out of 374 who applied for asylum, while 49 of them were denied any form of protection and 300 of them were still waiting an answer on their application after 2 years and a half.^[198] The same situation persisted during 2021.^[199]  According to available information, in June 2022, just 58 persons out of 629 had received asylum, 200 applications were denied, and 93 were still pending.^[200] In June 2023 the President of the Association ‘Survivors of Aquarius’ denounced that, 5 years after their arrival, 80% of the asylum applications lodged by those who arrived with the vessel had been denied, while the vast majority of the others are still waiting for a decision on their asylum application.^[201]

 Police stations, CATE and CAED

All adults arriving to mainland by boat are placed in Detention for up to 72 hours in police facilities for identification and processing. This is also the case of families and women travelling with children, while children who arrive unaccompanied are usually taken to the competent protection centre.^[202]

All persons rescued at sea are issued an expulsion order. If the person who irregularly entered Spain and received an expulsion order lodges an application for international protection, the expulsion order is suspended during the asylum procedure and resumes only in case of rejection of the application. If the person does not apply for international protection, but the order cannot be executed within a period of 72 hours, migrants are transferred to detention in a Foreigners Detention Centre (CIE) to proceed with the expulsion. Most migrants who are sent there are eventually not removed from the country,^[203] as Spain does not have bilateral agreements with the relevant countries of origin. Once the maximum 60-day Duration of Detention in CIE has expired, the person is released with a pending expulsion order.

Shortcomings concerning access to legal assistance for persons arriving by sea have been reported in recent years. This includes contacting lawyers only following the notification of the expulsion order rather than at the moment of arrival of migrants in Spain. Lawyers meet with clients once they are in the CIE, but these interviews are in most cases collective and are conducted in the presence of police officers. The 2022 annual report of the Spanish Ombudsperson confirms such challenges and shortcomings.^[204]

Despite certain improvements put in place by the Government of the Canary Islands, a thematic report published by the organisation Irídia in May 2022 confirms the challenges that migrants still face in accessing legal assistance and asylum.^[205]

In August 2021, the General Council of the Spanish Bar Association published guidelines on legal assistance during maritime arrivals, that contains practical guidance for lawyers on how to guarantee a quality legal assistance to newcomers, including information on how to access the asylum procedure, and the right to defence.^[206]

In addition, in order to respond to the increasing number of arrivals, from 2018 the Spanish Government put in place resources in order to manage arrivals and to carry out the identification of persons’ vulnerabilities in the first days of arrival. Specific facilities for emergency and referral have been created: these are referred to as Centres for the Temporary Assistance of Foreigners (Centros de Atención Temporal de Extranjeros, CATE) and Centres for Emergency Assistance and Referral (Centros de Atención de Emergencia y Derivación, CAED).^[207]

• CATEs are managed by the National Police and are aimed at facilitating the identification of persons by the police, i.e. recording of personal data, fingerprinting etc. In practice these are closed centres which function as police stations and all newly arrived persons must pass through CATE. The maximum duration of stay in CATE is 72 hours.

As of the end of 2023, there were CATE in all the main points of sea arrivals: San Roque-Algeciras in Cádiz, Almería, Motril in Granada, in Málaga, Cartagena, Barranco Seco in Las Palmas de Gran Canarias, Tenerife, Arrecife in Lanzarote, Fuerteventura. CATE are usually large facilities; the one in San Roque has a capacity of about 600 places, for example. The one in Málaga has a capacity for 300 persons, with a space of 2.3m² per person, which is a 42.5% less than what is foreseen by the law for those detained in police station’s prisons. Concerns relating to the conditions of detention, i.e. overcrowding and violation of the right to free movement, have been raised in vain.^[208] The construction of a new CATE in Cartagena, announced in 2020, was due to be finalised in 2021, but its construction was finalised in September 2022.^[209] The Government further announced the construction of two additional CATEs in 2021, namely in Motril (Granada), ^[210] which constructions work finalised in October 2022, but it still didn’t open at the time of writing of this report,^[211] and in Las Palmas on the Canary Islands, which  was opened  in Barranco Seco with a capacity of 1,000 places.^[212]

Based on available information, the Government has not adopted (or at least not yet published) any legal instrument defining and regulating these centres created to manage sea arrivals.^[213] The same was highlighted also by the Spanish Ombudsperson in its capacity as National Mechanism for Prevention of Torture in its 2022 annual report, which underlines that such facilities are considered as an “extension” of the National Police stations on which they depend. Thus, they are subject to the same regime as police stations.^[214]

In December 2023, the Minister of Interior announced the that 1,980 places would be made available at the CATEs of El Hierro and Fuerteventura, as well as the opening of two new CATEs in Fuerteventura and Tenerife, with the aim of facing the increase in arrivals to the Canary Islands.[215]

• CAEDs are open centres managed by NGOs, i.e. the Spanish Red Cross, Accem and CEAR, under the coordination of the Directorate-General for Inclusion and Humanitarian Assistance (Dirección General de Inclusión y Atención Humanitaria, DGIAH) Ministry of Inclusion, Social Security and Migration, and are usually large centres where certain assistance services are provided, including information, social and legal assistance.^[216] For example, the CAED in Chiclana de la Frontera, Cádiz is managed by the Spanish Red Cross and has capacity for 600-700 persons. Its aim is to establish the status of each newly arrived migrant and to facilitate them the possibility of contacting family members and friends across Spain and the EU.^[217]

As of February 2022, there was a total of eleven CAED managed by NGOs (i.e. CEAR, Red Cross, etc.).^[218] In 2023, the Directorate-General for Humanitarian Assistance and Social Inclusion of Migrants plans to reduce the number of such facilities as well as the number of reception places due to the decrease in the occupancy. The plan is to reduce the capacity from 1,410 to 1,060, and the number of facilities to 9.^[219]

In April 2021, the Minister of Interior was allocated EUR 13.5 million through EU funding to improve police capacity (in particular, facilities and services) to respond to migrants’ arrival. Such budget will be used to improve the conditions and infrastructure of the CATE in Barranco Seco, create two additional mobile CATEs, as well as to provide services and other necessary assistance.^[220]

The 2022 annual report of the Spanish Ombudsperson acknowledges the improvements made at the CATEs of Barranco Seco, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, while highlighting the necessity to adopt other measures to improve the infrastructures and the functioning regime of the last two. While regarding the centre in Barranco Seco, the institution considers it a model in terms of infrastructures and functioning regime, and it judged such CATE a model that could be copied by other similar facilities.^[221] As a good practice the institution refers also to the fact that migrants can use their mobile phones and that they can go to open air in an appropriate space of the facility.

Police officers working at the CATE in Cartagena reported that it lacked of electricity and internet when it was opened in September 2022.^[222]

In September 2022, the Spanish Ombudsperson denounced the serious deficiencies of CATEs and called the Government to adopt a regulation for them, including also guarantee for migrants to denounce mistreatments.^[223]

Border monitoring

UNHCR carries out monitoring activities at Spanish borders, including through its presence in Melilla (with a team of three persons), Algeciras (with a team of three persons covering Ceuta and the province of Cádiz), Málaga (where a team of two covers the provinces of Málaga, Granada and Almería),

and in the Canary Islands (with a team of three persons).

UNHCR’s work at the borders aims at supporting the authorities in the early identification of the international protection needs and specific needs of persons arriving by land and sea, and in fostering the

access to the asylum procedure of persons in need of international protection. The activities that UNHCR

implements are mainly provision of information on asylum, training addressed at different stakeholders on international protection and refugee’s rights, and support to different actors responsible for the registration, documentation, reception and assistance of asylum seekers. In addition, UNHCR promotes a fair and fast procedure allowing a border management in line with the international obligations that Spain

has, including the UN Refugee Convention.

Through its presence at main entry points and in Madrid, UNHCR provided information to 26,730 individuals who were newly arrived or seeking asylum. This support was delivered through face-to-face counselling, group information sessions, helplines and email correspondence and during UNHCR´s monitoring visits to reception centres and detention centres for sea arrivals. Information was also disseminated through adapted materials such as videos in various languages.

Monitoring is carried out by visiting and assessing the situation in border facilities. This includes documenting refoulement related incidents, the profiles of sea and land arrivals and their specific needs and international protection needs, assessing the conditions in the facilities, the access to information on

asylum, the way in which asylum interviews are carried out, as well as the access to interpretation and legal assistance. UNHCR generally supports, advises and recommends authorities and NGOs on how to

improve access to territory and the procedure, in compliance with international and national legal standards.[224]

Based on the needs of persons arriving to the Canary Islands, in June 2022 Accem started to implement a project providing an interpretation service funded by the UNHCR. Such a service was directed at supporting the authorities and other actors involved in the reception of sea arrivals, including in detention and reception centres and in the provision of medical services, with the aim of improving the identification of persons in need of international protection among those arriving by boat and of fostering their access to the asylum procedure and to specialized assistance. The service initially counted with a team of 12 interpreters (8 men and 4 women) speaking different languages and dialects, i.e. Arabic, English, French, Dahiya, Hassanal, Bambara, Soninke, Pular, Wolof and Diola. The interpreters had been trained on international protection, prevention of and response to gender-based violence, child protection, protection of LGTBIQ+ persons, the psychological impact of migration process, as well as on the role of interpreters and on professionalism. During 2023 the service deployed a team of 6 interpreters (4 men and 2 women), who covered the following languages: Dahiya, Arabic, Soninke, Bambara, Pular, Diola, Wolof, English, French and Hassaniya. The project ended at the end of December 2023. Through this service, a total of 22,993 persons were assisted in 1,798 interventions. The main nationalities of those assisted were Senegalese, Moroccan and Malian, and the main languages Wolof, Dahiya, Bambara and Pular.^[225]

The project significantly improved communication possibilities in the applicants’ native languages and enhanced the identification of persons with specific needs and in need of international protection and referrals to services and the asylum procedure. Continuous training in interpretation within a refugee context, including specific areas such as gender, child protection, and LGBTIQ+ issues, further professionalized interpreters.[226]

Monitoring is carried out by visiting and assessing the situation in border facilities. This includes assessing the conditions in the facilities, the access to information on asylum, the way in which asylum interviews are carried out, as well as the access to interpretation and legal assistance. UNHCR generally supports, advises and recommends authorities and NGOs on how to improve access to territory and the procedure, in compliance with international and national legal standards.

Legal access to the territory 

At the end of 2021, the Government approved the National Refugees Resettlement Program for 2022, which foresaw the resettlement in Spain of 1,200 refugees during the year A total of 1,112 refugees were finally resettled in 2022, mainly Syrians coming from Lebanon (but also Iranians, Eritreans, Nigerians, Sudanese and Afghans ).^[227] In May 2022, 201 Syrian refugees were transferred to Spain from Lebanon, of which 95 were women, 21 men and 85 children.^[228]

Resettled refugees access the asylum reception system and are entitled to reception conditions as asylum applicants. In relation to the procedure, they arrive with a decision already taken on their status. As soon as they arrive, they receive the notification of the decision (in some cases also directly at the airport upon arrival) and thus, once in Spain, they just have to apply for receiving accommodation and receiving a work permit.

Newly resettled families were also channelled into the regional community sponsorship programmes and positive integration outcomes were registered for those families who completed the programmes, especially related to language learning, rapid access to employment and local inclusion. UNHCR supported the resettlement programme through its participation in the national resettlement coordination group and the community sponsorship initiative through a specific consultancy, which informed discussions on the way forward for these programmes in the future.^[229]

Expansions to established community sponsorship programs were agreed in the Basque Country and Navarra. A positive evaluation of the programme in Valencia prompted interest in resuming it in 2024. Other regions expressed interest in implementing similar schemes.[230]

In February 2023, the Council of Ministers approved the National Programme for Resettlement of Refugees in Spain for 2023, foreseeing a quota of up to 1,200 persons.^[231] At the beginning of March 2023, a total of 89 Syrian refugees living in Türkiye and affected by the earthquake were resettled to Spain.^[232] Very few cases of humanitarian visa have been issued by Spain for Afghans after the evacuation, but it is not a commonly applied measure. In May 2023 the Government announced the programme’s extension for next three years, with the aim of receiving more refugees, specifically those coming from Central and South America.^[233] In December 2023 the Government allocated 1.8 million Euros for the resettlement of 1,200 refugees from Costa Rica, Lebanon and Türkiye.[234] In February 2024, the Government announced the programme’s enlargement, with the aim of including other 1,500 refugees coming from Central and South America in 2024 and 2025.[235]

In October 2023, the Minister of Inclusion, Social Security and Migration started to implement a project, together with Accem and the Council of the City of Valladolid to foster access to the job market for more than 100 Nicaraguan refugees resettled from Costa Rica to Spain, specifically in the field of renewable energies.^[236] In December, 74 persons arrived to Spain within this framework.^[237]

During the ‘X Parade for Dignity’ organised in Ceuta to commemorate the incidents occurred at the borders of the city on 6 February 2014, which resulted in the death of at least 14 migrants who were beaten back by the Guardia Civil, a call to the EU for the creation of safe and legal pathways was made.^[238]

In April, Spain informed about its participation, together with Canada and Mexico, in the US program to foster regular pathways of migration for persons coming from Central and South America.^[239]

During the same month, the Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe published a report following a country visit to Spain. The report addresses, amongst other things, the rights of refugees, asylum seekers and migrants, and the Commissioner urges the authorities to make sure that those in need of protection can access the territory through legal and safe ways.^[240]

In occasion of the World Refugee Day, the NGO ‘Accem’ reiterated its call to create legal and safe pathways for refugees to reach Spain and Europe, such as the possibility to apply for asylum at Embassies and Consulates, as well as at borders, the provision of humanitarian visas, the simplification of criteria for family reunification, the strengthening of the resettlement program, and the use of the temporary protection directive for persons fleeing other conflicts.^[241]

After the earthquake in Morocco and the flooding in Libya in September 2023, the NGO ‘CEAR’ called for the European Union and Spain to guarantee the protection to those refugees fleeing the two countries, also by granting humanitarian visas, facilitating the lodging of asylum at embassies and consulates, and by making the criteria for family reunification more flexible.^[242] The same organisation called for guaranteeing protection and legal pathways for Palestinians fleeing from Gaza following the forced expulsion of the population by Israel in October 2023.^[243]

In November, 167 Syrian refugees arrived in Spain from Lebanon and Türkiye. So far, a total of 699 were resettled in Spain in 2023 within the resettlement programme.^[244]

In 2023 UNHCR continued to support the implementation of Spain´s resettlement programme through participation in the national resettlement coordination group. In the context of resettlement, Spain achieved a 92% implementation rate of its committed quota of 1,200 places, comprising 302 Syrians from Türkiye and Lebanon and 96 Nicaraguans from Costa Rica. UNHCR advocated for Spain’s participation in resettlement initiatives from the American continent, resulting in the resettlement of Nicaraguans from Costa Rica. Another 72 Nicaraguans arrived from Costa Rica under a labour mobility pilot project, which was linked to Spain’s participation in the Safe Mobility Offices Initiative.

Spain responded swiftly to UNHCR´s call for prompt resettlement upon the tragic earthquakes in Türkiye,

by executing an urgent resettlement operation, providing assistance to 302 earthquake affected refugees,

with UNHCR promoted resettlement coordination group playing a crucial role.[245]

In January 2024 the Government approved the National Programme for the Resettlement of Refugees in Spain, with the commitment to resettle 1,200 refugees in Spain during 2024.^[246]

In its 2024 annual report, Human Rights Watch remarked that the Government’s pushback policy and failure to offer legal routes to claim asylum at its borders continued to contribute to deaths at sea.[247]

As specified in the section on Differential treatment, after the Taliban takeover in Afghanistan, Spain started to transfer persons fleeing the country, also by issuing visa to Spain to Afghans at the embassies and consulates in Iran and Pakistan.

Family reunification is another complementary pathway offered by Spain for legal access to territory.

^{[1] Ministerio del Interior, ‘Inmigración irregular 2023. Datos acumulados del 1 de enero al 31 de diciembre’, January 2024, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3wpzt6se.}

^{[2] Rabat Process, ‘6th Ministerial Conference: Adoption of the Cadiz Action Plan’, 21 December 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/4j5du4wj.}

^{[3] Rai News, ‘Condoglianze all’Italia dal vertice Med5: “Prevenire perdite di vite evitando partenze irregolari”’, 4 March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3kWVDtj.} 

^{[4] Centre Delàs d’Estudis per la Pau, Financiación de la militarización y la guerra de fronteras en el Mediterráneo. Ranking de la banca armada 2022, March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/5dvfyx4a.}

^{[5] Schengen Visa Info, ‘5 NGOs Accuse France of Violating Migrant Rights at Spanish Border’, 15 May 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3o2Voy7.}

^{[6] CEAR, ‘ONG piden investigar el posible uso de fondos europeos en vulneraciones de derechos humanos’, 10 May 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/hysjpr3r,}

^{[7] EuroMed Rights, State Watch, ‘Europe’s techno borders: digital infrastructure for migration control’, July 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/42lB8aL.}

^{[8] ABC, ‘Biometría y livescans para identificar a los migrantes en frontera’, 18 April 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3u7ynpxc.}

^{[9] El País, ‘Political crisis in Senegal triggers influx of migrants to Spain’s Canary Islands’, 16 July 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3Ue199S.}

^{[10] Amnistía Internacional, ‘Amnistía Internacional reclama al Gobierno español que impulse una política migratoria europea “que salve vidas” en el inicio de la presidencia de la UE’, 30 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3nvyey6c.}

^{[11] LinkedIn, Publicación de ACNUR ESPAÑA, May 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/ykmv4mcd}

^{[12] Hora Sur, ‘Arranca la Operación Minerva, con 16 países implicados en la seguridad fronteriza del Estrecho’, 24 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/bdffa4wr; Ceuta Ahora, ‘Policía Nacional y FRONTEX coordinan la operación MINERVA en los puertos de Algeciras’,  23 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/y6ncuz8z; Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía, ‘Investigación del posible uso fraudulento de fondos europeos en prácticas que vulneran los Derechos Humanos’, 10 May 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/ycy5b7nv.}

^{[13] El País, ‘Frontex amenaza con irse de España’, 25 January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yc4rcmtf; Público, ‘Canarias ve con “preocupación” la posible marcha de Frontex de España e Interior dice que todo se arreglará “en horas”’, 25 January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/2nzhepxf.}

^{[14] El País, ‘Frontex y España llegan a un acuerdo ‘in extremis’ para retomar las operaciones contra la inmigración irregular’, 29 January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yeym3tzs.}

^{[15] Centre Delàs, Irídia: ‘Qui vigila el vigilant? Violència a les fronteres i impunitat a Frontex’, January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yr65c6pw.}

^{[16] Atalayar, ‘Marruecos rescata a 2.000 migrantes del Atlántico en 2 meses, un 85 % subsaharianos’, 15 July 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/bdd2a54p}

^{[17] Europa Press, ‘Marruecos ha impedido la emigración a 25.519 personas en los cinco primeros meses del año’, 24 June 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/ycyya8es}

^{[18] Info Migrants, ‘Deaths on Canaries route highlight lack of coordinated rescue ops’, 26 June 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/47UZsRU.}

^{[19] Diaconia, ‘Vidas en Tránsito – 12 historias de acogida y refugio’, 20 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/8narc942.}

^{[20] El País, ‘El polizón egipcio que llegó a Bilbao en la bodega de un avión pide asilo en España: “Mi vida corre peligro”’, 25 October 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/4a34wyu8; El País, ‘España deniega el asilo al joven egipcio que viajó a Bilbao en la bodega de un avión’, 28 October 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/5xypuhhj; El País, ‘España devuelve a su país al polizón que viajó de Egipto a Bilbao en la bodega de un avión’,  3 November 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/5fhxkvr2.}

^{[21] Madrid Diario, ‘Desarticulada una red que introducía migrantes por Barajas simulando ser menores’, 15 February 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/4tek2k64.}

^{[22] Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Informe anual 2022 – Volumen I’, March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/bdhjbujw, 59.}

^{[23] CEAR, ‘Sin barreras para nadie: personas migrantes y refugiadas en el acceso a los Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales (DESC)’, March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/5xnmr4t7; El Foro de Ceuta, ‘Denuncian que las personas subsaharianas no pueden pedir asilo en Ceuta’, 9 April 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/59daa92f.}

^{[24] La Verdad de Ceuta, ‘CEAR denuncia las continuas devoluciones “ilegales y sumarias” en las fronteras de Ceuta y Melilla’, 28 December 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/ypjaxc66.}

^{[25] CEAR, ‘Informe 2020: las personas refugiadas en España y Europa’, June 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/QjkYUYt, 74.}

^{[26] Huffington Post, ‘Un migrante entra en Melilla sobrevolando en parapente la valla’, 7 October 2023, available in Spanish at: https://rb.gy/8gk7o.}

^{[27] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía – APDHA, ‘Informe Sombra | España continúa incumpliendo los principios de la Convención Contra la Tortura’, 26 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/4rf8hu8k.}

^{[28] Público, ‘Menos concertinas y más altura: colectivos de Melilla y Ceuta denuncian que las nuevas vallas continúan vulnerando los derechos humanos’, 29 August 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/QhcBFWN.}

^{[29] El Faro de Melilla, ‘La oficina de asilo de Beni Enzar tendrá dos plantas para ampliar sus dependencias’, 26 August 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/ihcZ7w0.}

^{[30] Ceuta al Día, ‘Interior renueva los módulos que albergan la oficina de asilo del Tarajal a la que apenas ha dado uso’, 26 August 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/chcM84v.}

^{[31] Público, ‘El control migratorio en España: una oscura industria de más de 660 millones en cinco años’, 1 July 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2OPisOV.}

^{[32] Europa Press, ‘El Gobierno aprueba las últimas reformas de modernización de la valla de Ceuta por un importe de 4 millones’, 19 July 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3zRwh35.}

^{[33] El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Cuatro años de experimentos en la valla: el plan Marlaska hace aguas’, 22 October 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/bdd5w8vx.}

^{[34] El País, ‘El masivo salto de migrantes en la valla fronteriza de Melilla, en imágenes’, 24 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3QgDMHU; ECRE, ‘Atlantic Route and Spain: Deadly Tragedy at Melilla Border Causes Local Protests and International Outcry – More Deaths on the Atlantic’, Weekly Bulletin, 8 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3A9951S; Melting Pot, ‘Almeno 27 migranti muoiono in Marocco nel tentativo di superare le barriere verso Melilla’, 25 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3bNzgBW.}

^{[35] Amnistía Internacional, ‘Amnistía Internacional expresa gran preocupación por los graves hechos ocurridos hoy en Melilla y en la frontera entre Marruecos y España, y pide una investigación independiente y exhaustiva’, 24 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3AdXPBr; CEAR, ‘CEAR denuncia el «uso indiscriminado de la violencia» en el control de fronteras’, 25 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3PfYXZr; El Pueblo de Ceuta, ‘La Asociación Elín condena la situación de violencia vivida en la frontera de Melilla’, 25 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3zLVwE3; Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), ‘APDHA muestra su consternación y exige una investigación tras el último salto a la valla de Melilla’, 25 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3pecrdq; RTVE, ‘Las ONG denuncian el “uso indiscriminado” de la violencia en la frontera de Melilla y apuntan a una cifra mayor de muerte’, 25 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3QAapQA; ACNUR, ‘ACNUR y la OIM lamentan la pérdida de vidas en la valla fronteriza de Nador-Melilla’, 25 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3QuO87r.}         

^{[36] El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Coordinadora de Barrios exige una investigación y una política migratoria basada en la seguridad humana’, 24 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3p6qwd1; El Salto Diario, ‘Colectivos migrantes exigen responsabilidades políticas por las muertes en Melilla y convocan concentraciones’, 26 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3A914tQ; La Sexta, ‘Unidas Podemos solicita una investigación independiente para esclarecer la “tragedia humana” en la valla de Melilla’, 27 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3C0xEzv; El Mundo, ‘Ada Colau insta a investigar las muertes de Melilla y acusa al Gobierno de “racismo institucional”’, 25 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3PedQeE; Alfa y Omega, ‘Los obispos tras la tragedia en la frontera de Melilla: «No son invasores, son seres humanos»’, 25 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3zGDZNA; Noticiasde, ‘Podemos, ERC, Bildu y Compromís acuerdan pedir que el Congreso investigue las muertes en Melilla, pero no ponen fecha’, 30 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3QiDjoS.}     

^{[37] El Diario, ‘La Fiscalía exculpa a Interior de las muertes en Melilla y pide expedientar a los agentes que apedrearon a migrantes’, 23 December 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3FTJ2x6.}

^{[38] La Vanguardia, ‘Más de 150 organizaciones denuncian el archivo de la investigación sobre la tragedia porque “deja impunes” hechos muy graves’, 24 December 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3G0O1fI.}

^{[39] Huffington Post, ‘HRW denuncia: las devoluciones en caliente en España contribuyeron a la muerte de migrantes’, 12 January 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3ZwrJv8.}

^{[40] El Faro de Melilla, ‘La ministra de Justicia explica al Parlamento Europeo que la tragedia del 24J se cerró tras una profunda investigación’, 12 January 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3GN11WN.}

^{[41] Amnistía Internacional, ‘Amnistía Internacional exige a los Gobiernos de España y Marruecos que acaben con “la política de impunidad y excepcionalidad” en las fronteras de Ceuta y Melilla’, 1 February 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/4pjzba8r; Cope, ‘Amnistía Internacional plantará siluetas de migrantes frente a Moncloa para reclamar que no se repita la tragedia de Melilla’, 1 February 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/mh35jm3z.}

^{[42] 20 Minutos, ‘Marlaska, reprobado en el Congreso por la tragedia de la valla de Melilla con los votos del PP, Vox y los partidos independentistas’, 9 February 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3w9msp8a.}  

^{[43] El País, ‘El Defensor del Pueblo concluye que las devoluciones en caliente durante la tragedia de Melilla fueron ilegales’, 13 March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/2734jk5c.}

^{[44] El Faro de Melilla, ‘Marlaska intervendrá el 22 de marzo ante Parlamento Europeo para abordar la tragedia del 24J en la valla de Melilla’, 9 March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/4z2sb7b5.}

^{[45] Amnistía Internacional, ‘Marruecos / España: Continúa la agonía para las familias de las personas desaparecidas y fallecidas mientras sigue el encubrimiento en Melilla’, 23 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3sv8v5rr.}

^{[46] El Diario, ‘Los supervivientes de la tragedia de Melilla piden justicia un año después: “No se nos escucha”’, 23 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/5yumhpdb.}

^{[47] CEAR, ‘CEAR recuerda que un año después sigue sin haber “verdad, justicia y reparación” por la tragedia de Melilla’, 23 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/yndh3pff; Europa Press, ‘Amnistía y CEAR elevan a 37 muertos y hasta 77 desparecidos las víctimas en la valla de Melilla hace un año’, 23 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/nhe6awnz.}

^{[48] El Faro de Melilla, ‘Un año después de la tragedia del 24J: un migrante enterrado y 61 condenados’, 22 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/y4nhd322.}

^{[49] El Periódico de Canarias, ‘Una gran manifestación recuerda en frontera de Melilla a las víctimas del 24J’, 24 Jube 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/ye3fe6nm; El Salto Diario, ‘Por la Justicia en Melilla, la regularización ya y el cierre de CIEs: arranca la Caravana Abriendo Fronteras’, 23 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/55k9bma9.}

^{[50] Diario Siglo XXI, ‘ONG presentan una querella para que se abra una investigación del salto a la valla de Melilla de junio de 2022’, 16 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/4pzzvekt.}

^{[51] Jurist, ‘UN Committee against Torture releases findings on four member states’, 29 July 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3tZaUOJ.}

^{[52] El Faro de Melilla, ‘La CEAR solicita un informe independiente sobre la masacre de Melilla del año 2022’, 18 December 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/bk2m4u2z.}    

^{[53] Human Rights Watch, ‘World report 2023. Spain, events of 2023’, January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/44xwptyk}

^{[54] Público, ‘Reto a Marlaska: un sudanés devuelto a Marruecos en la tragedia de Melilla pide asilo en la embajada de España en Rabat’, 13 December 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3hLTzmc.} 

^{[55] El Faro de Melilla, ‘Entrevistado el joven sudanés que pidió asilo en la Embajada española en Rabat hace tres meses’, 6 March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3ZMxjJi; Público, ‘El salvoconducto a España del sudanés que sobrevivió a la tragedia de Melilla ya está en manos del embajador en Marruecos’, 8 March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3YDmmIM.}

^{[56] El Diario, ‘La carta a Pedro Sánchez de un sudanés devuelto a Marruecos: “Jamás habría intentado saltar la valla si tuviera otra opción”’, 24 june 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/fkfyama7.}

^{[57] Público, ‘Basir, superviviente de la tragedia de Melilla, recurre a la Audiencia Nacional tras un año ignorado por el Gobierno’, 16 december 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/426zsth8.}

^{[58] Público, ‘Basir, superviviente de la tragedia de Melilla, recurre a la Audiencia Nacional tras un año ignorado por el Gobierno’, 16 December 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/38d473af.}

^{[59] El Debate, ‘Marruecos aborta un intento masivo de asalto a las vallas de Ceuta y Melilla’, 1 January 2024, available in Spanish at: https://shorturl.at/zGJV5.}

^{[60] Organic Law 4/2015 of 30 March 2015 on the protection of citizen security.}

^{[61] UNHCR Spain, ‘Enmienda a Ley de Extranjería vincula gestión fronteriza y respeto de obligaciones internacionales’, 13 March 2015, available in Spanish at: http://bit.ly/1oEUcMD. See also ECRE, ‘Spain: New law giving legal cover to pushbacks in Ceuta and Melilla threats the right to asylum – Op-Ed by Estrella Galán, CEAR’, 27 March 2015, available at: http://bit.ly/1FRab0K.}

^{[62] Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, Third party intervention in N.D. v. Spain and N.T. v. Spain, 9 November 2015, available at: http://bit.ly/1oN9Vdk.} 

^{[63] Eurostat; migr_eirfs.}

^{[64] ECtHR, N.D. and N.T. v. Spain, Application Nos 8675/15 and 8697/15, Judgment of 3 October 2017.} 

^{[65] ECtHR, Grand Chamber, Case of N.D. and N.T. v. Spain, Applications nos. 8675/15 and 8697/15’, 13 February 2020, available at: https://cutt.ly/NrB68Fx.}

^{[66] See EDAL summary at:  https://bit.ly/39fa7bV. For an analysis, see also Stavros Papageorgopoulos, N.D. and N.T. v. Spain: do hot returns require cold decision-making?, 28 February 2020, available at: https://bit.ly/33JWK25.} 

^{[67] Ibid.}

^{[68] Ibid.}

^{[69] Atresmedia, ‘La Unión Progresista de Fiscales tilda de “brutal retroceso” el fallo del Tribunal Europeo que avala las devoluciones en caliente’, 15 February 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3dmLywW.}

^{[70] Servicio Jesuita a Migrantes, ‘Nota de prensa Sentencia TEDH: Una sentencia dolorosa para demandantes y sociedad civil, pero que no legitima las devoluciones sumarias’, 14 February 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/crNqKam.}

^{[71] Netflix, ‘The Gourougou Trial’, November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3FqKoAr.}

^{[72] Tribunal Constitucional, Recurso de inconstitucionalidad STC 2015-2896, 19 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/VhYgIhu; Tribunal Constitucional, NOTA INFORMATIVA Nº 108/2020. El Pleno del TC avala la constitucionalidad de la ley de protección de la seguridad ciudadana de 2015 salvo las grabaciones “no autorizadas” a la policía, 19 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/EhYgLWZ.}

^{[73] El Salto Diario, ‘El Constitucional desautoriza las devoluciones en caliente que realiza el Ministerio de Interior, 20 November 2020’, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/ShYjIih.}

^{[74] Committee on the Rights of the Child, Views adopted by the Committee under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on a communications procedure, concerning communication No. 4/2016 – CRC/C/80/D/4/2016, 12 February 2019, available at: https://bit.ly/2TJ9Euf.}

^{[75] El Correo, ‘El Supremo confirma el archivo de la causa sobre la tragedia de El Tarajal’, 2 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3BQrJNc.}

^{[76] Cadena Ser, ‘El Constitucional admite a trámite el recurso que presentaron varias ONG contra el archivo de la causa del Tarajal’, 28 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/2s7mmv85.}

^{[77] The Guardian, ‘Refugee files complaint to UN against Spain over 2014 border deaths’, 1 February 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/5yyy9nhh.}

^{[78] Dutch Council for Refugees, ‘Working together against pushbacks in Spain’, 19 May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3A8GTw7.}

^{[79] Dutch Council for Refugees, ‘The Step-Up Fund for International Protection and Capacity Development’, available at: https://tinyurl.com/4fks7dyn.}

^{[80] El Salto, ‘Un joven maliense se querella contra la Guardia Civil tras perder la visión de un ojo’, 30 March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/47mn7wv9.}

^{[81] Commissioner for Human Rights, Council of Europe, ‘Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe – Dunja Mijatović – Report following her visit to Spain from 21 to 25 November 2022’, 13 April 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3u4SJan.}

^{[82] Cope, ‘Interior asegura que el Gobierno no va incumplir su obligación de proteger las fronteras’, 10 May 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/22n3yke6.}

^{[83] El Faro de Ceuta, ‘España y Marruecos frenan un nuevo ‘salto a la valla’ en Ceuta y devuelven en caliente, al menos, a un joven subsahariano’, 13 April 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3CnhnRG; El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Organizaciones de Derechos Humanos denuncian la devolución en caliente de un joven subsahariano en la valla de Ceuta’, 13 April 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3wTyf1b; El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Devueltos a Marruecos unos 30 jóvenes migrantes que llegaron a nado a Ceuta el domingo’, 27 April 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3AkcERg.}

^{[84] El País, ‘Interior devuelve a Marruecos a miles de migrantes sin aclarar el procedimiento’, 19 May 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3oARJ74.}

^{[85] El Salto Diario, ‘Las organizaciones de DD HH denuncian que el Gobierno está incumpliendo la ley con las expulsiones colectivas de Ceuta’, 19 May 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3nmUiKq; Al Jazeera, ‘As migrants continue to reach Ceuta, Spanish pushback hardens’, 19 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3DaSVU1; RTVE, ‘Las ONG piden acabar con las devoluciones en caliente de menores en Ceuta y recuerdan que son ilegales’, 19 May 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3DiSTcF; Asociación Pro derechos Humanos de Anadalucía – APDHA, ‘APDHA exige el cese de las vulneraciones de derechos humanos contra las personas migrantes en Ceuta’, 19 May 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/31lwqyk.}

^{[86] Stick Noticias, ‘ONG denuncian la devolución de menores, la falta de asistencia letrada y la persecución de migrantes en Ceuta’, 21 May 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/31dN5UZ.}

^{[87] Cadena Ser, ‘Interior ordena la devolución a sus países de origen a los menores migrantes que cruzaron a Ceuta en mayo’, 13 May 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3GXhSoh.}

^{[88] El Diario, ‘Un juzgado de Ceuta ordena al Gobierno retornar a España a los menores devueltos a Marruecos en agosto’, 17 February 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/41puQ8S.}

^{[89] Público, ‘La Fiscalía denuncia a la delegada del Gobierno y a la vicepresidenta de Ceuta por las expulsiones de menores marroquíes’, 10 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3VLzlYp.} 

^{[90] El Diario, ‘Los mensajes de Whatsapp sobre la devolución ilegal de menores de Ceuta señalan a Carmen Calvo y Marlaska: “Hemos de inventar un procedimiento”’, 3 August 2023, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/NwdhtBWI.}

^{[91] Tribunal Supremo. Sala de lo Contencioso, STS 114/2024, 22 January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/y7brw5wb; El País, ‘El Tribunal Supremo confirma que la devolución de menores desde Ceuta a Marruecos en agosto de 2021 fue ilegal’, 22 January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/3cspwpnf.}

^{[92] Europa Press, ‘ONG anuncian que emprenderán “acciones oportunas” tras declarar el Supremo ilegales otras 12 devoluciones de menores’, 26 January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/2s38pubd.}

^{[93] Tercera Información, ‘Jueces para la Democracia pide al Gobierno asumir responsabilidades tras la sentencia del Supremo contra la devolución de menores’, 28 January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/38a8jwvh.}

^{[94] El Peródico de España, ‘La devolución de 168 migrantes a Senegal destapa discrepancias con Mauritania y las ONG’, 3 August 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/mr26v5fh.}

^{[95] CEAR, ‘Posible devolución colectiva a Senegal de 168 personas migrantes rescatadas por el barco español Río Tajo’, 29 August 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/5b7ut4uy; El Diario, ‘Desembarcan en Senegal los 168 migrantes rescatados por la Guardia Civil pese a las advertencias de las organizaciones humanitarias’, 30 August 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3rkf8kwz.}

^{[96] Amnistía Internacional, ‘España: La devolución colectiva sin garantías a Senegal de 168 personas migrantes vulnera los derechos humanos’, 30 August 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/k6fvt4pn.}

^{[97] El País, ‘Mauritania recibe un tercio de los vuelos de expulsión de inmigrantes desde España’, 1 July 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/DhYbXnm.}

^{[98] El Diario, ‘Devoluciones exprés de Canarias a Mauritania: Interior ha expulsado a malienses que declararon su intención de pedir asilo’, 31 January 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/ir7o2KQ.}

^{[99] El País, ‘Uno de los deportados por España a Mauritania: “Después de tres días sin comer, nos abandonaron en Malí”’, 7 February 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2QJzk7M.}

^{[100] Europapress, ‘SJM denuncia que España repatría a personas malienses a Mauritania, “devoluciones indirectas” a un país en conflicto’, 24 January 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/wtqES5g; La Provincia, ‘Las devoluciones indirectas de migrantes a Mali contravienen directrices de la ONU’, 3 February 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/3tqW6Ew.}

^{[101] Espiral 21, ‘España y Mauritania ponen en marcha la migración circular’, 8 February 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yeymuk2t; The Guardian, ‘EU leaders unveil €210m Mauritania deal in bid to curb people-smuggling’, 8 Febryary 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/6trzvuby; Canarias 7, ‘Pestana pide refuerzo policial para atender el repunte migratorio’, 8 February 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/2dd393av}

^{[102] El Diario, ‘Grupos semanales de 20 migrantes y sin derecho a un segundo abogado, así son las deportaciones de Canarias al Sáhara’, 23 April 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3IT7xvX.}

^{[103] Cope, ‘Argelia se suma a Marruecos y Mauritania y ya empieza a aceptar inmigrantes retornados desde España’, 2 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/phYcxoL.}

^{[104] Público, ‘Interior retoma las deportaciones de migrantes argelinos desde los CIE’, 2 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2XXlhP7.}

^{[105] El País, ‘Interior incrementa la deportación de los marroquíes llegados a Canarias’, 7 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2LYQ9w4; El Español, ‘Rabat acepta la devolución de migrantes de Canarias en la negociación con la UE para lograr más visados’, 3 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2NfY7Sd.}

^{[106] El Confidencial, ‘España alcanza un acuerdo con Senegal para repatriar a los migrantes irregulares’, 22 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3IORSMt; El Salto Diario, ‘El plan de España en Senegal: extractivismo para empobrecer pero migración criminalizada’, 10 April 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/32IZ2CC.}

^{[107] Público, ‘España retomará los vuelos de deportaciones de migrantes a Senegal’, 5 February 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/37mAPkJ.}

^{[108] El País, ‘La ministra de Exteriores cierra en Senegal un acuerdo para reactivar las repatriaciones’, 22 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2Zvt87p.}

^{[109] Diario de Avisos, ‘Un macro vuelo recoge hoy en las Islas a decenas de senegaleses para deportarlos’, 10 March 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3G8Gb1C; El Día, ‘Interior mantiene las deportaciones a Senegal pese a las revueltas en el país’, 10 March 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3HkiuVq; Canarias7, ‘Interior suspende por segunda vez el vuelo de repatriación a Senegal, 10 March 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3KR9k53.}

^{[110] El País, ‘Senegal se resiste a garantizar los vuelos de repatriación de migrantes desde España’, 9 April 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3ujCP9T.}

^{[111] Voz Populi, ‘El Gobierno pagará hasta diez millones a las aerolíneas por devolver inmigrantes a sus países de origen’, 31 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/1jhBd3d.}

^{[112] El País, ‘Interior triplica las subvenciones a países africanos para contener la inmigración irregular’, 29 June 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2ZvZYoL.}

^{[113] El Diario, ‘El Gobierno activa un plan para “evitar la salida de pateras” a Canarias que incluye el envío de más aviones y buques a los países de tránsito,’ 13 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/395jHS1; El Día, ‘Repatriaciones y más vigilancia, el plan del Estado ante la inmigración, 14 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/35ZGblf; Canarias7, ‘El Gobierno deportará a inmigrantes sin protección internacional y no los derivará a la península’, 13 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2LPqWV9.}

^{[114] Público, ‘España y Senegal negocian para retomar las deportaciones de migrantes’, 19 September 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3WfP4z1.}

^{[115] El Confidencial Digital, ‘Interior proporcionará material policial a Gambia para frenar la inmigración irregular’, 15 September 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3kBTJgV.}

^{[116] European Migration Network (EMN), ‘Bilateral Readmission Agreements’, September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3ZtO37o.}

^{[117] Le Monde, ‘Madrid salue le rôle « essentiel » du Maroc en matière migratoire’, 20 April 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/498kZrr.}

^{[118] Ministerio del Interior, ‘Inmigración irregular 2023. Datos acumulados del 1 de enero al 31 de diciembre’, January 2024, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3wpzt6se}

^{[119] Ministry of Interior, ‘Immigración Irregular 2022. Datos acumulados del 1 de enero al 31 de diciembre’, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3iNv1tp.}

^{[120] Caminando Fronteras, ‘Monitoring the Right to Life – Year 2023, January 2024, available at: https://bit.ly/3SxQMN3.}

^{[121] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía – APDHA, ‘Derechos Humanos en la Frontera Sur 2023. 35 años de vidas sin rastro’, March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/nhkvu252.}

^{[122] Info Migrants, ‘Spain: Network ‘profited for years’ from families of missing migrants‘, 14 March 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yymcjt79.}

^{[123] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), ‘Más de un centenar de organizaciones proponen medidas para el trato digno a las personas migrantes muertas y desaparecidas en el mar y sus familias’, 2 November 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3VwJGHP; Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), ‘APDHA publica un documento informativo para las familias de personas desaparecidas en la frontera sur’, 28 July 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3JnFIOf.} 

^{[124] Consejo General de la Abogacía Española, Fundación Abogacía Española, ‘Asistencia jurídica en llegadas marítimas. Guía práctica para la abogacía’, August 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3GLQFoR.}

^{[125] Nius Diario, ‘Cruz Roja implanta un proyecto de identificación de personas desaparecidas en ruta migratoria por vía marítima’, 29 August 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3QkUYvl; El Diario, ‘Cruz Roja identifica a más de 100 personas desaparecidas en la ruta migratoria hacia Canarias’, 29 August 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3KQK4vV.}   

^{[126] Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Informe anual 2022 – Volumen I’, March 2023, p. 171, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/42x1Ehf.}

^{[127] Programa Ödos, see: https://programaodos.org/.}

^{[128] Programa Ödos, ‘Mujeres y niñez africana en movilidad. La llegada a España a través del Mediterráneo’, June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/40bMJY7.}

^{[129] ECRE, ‘Atlantic Route and Spain: Push for Inclusion of Irregular Migration as Threat to NATO, Old Routes Remain Deadly and New Deadly Routes Emerge Amid Tensions Over Western Sahara’, 24 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3o3s9Lm.}

^{[130] Info Migrants, ‘Le corps d’un bébé de 8 mois retrouvé sur une plage espagnole, trois mois après un naufrage’, 19 July 2023, available in French at: https://bit.ly/44yFImh.}

^{[131] Diario de Canarias, ‘Caminando Fronteras pide a la Fiscalía una investigación penal sobre la neumática hundida rumbo a Canarias’, 6 July 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/42kwnjhw.}

^{[132] Chiara Zanelli, Melting Pot, Perché la rotta Atlantica nel corso del 2020 si è “riaperta”?, 26 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/wjhVPi5.}

^{[133] Les Echos, ‘Sénégal : 6 questions sur une crise politique inédite’, 7 February 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/rpv3xn8h; Le Monde, ‘Le Sénégal s’enfonce dans la crise après que la répression de manifestations a fait deux morts’, 10 February 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/ycxnekmy.}

^{[134] Caminando Fronteras, ‘Monitoring the Right to Life – Year 2023’, January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yckuv3az} 

^{[135] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía, ‘Derechos Humanos en la Frontera Sur 2023 – 35 años de vidas sin rastro’, 20 March 2023, p. 75, available at: https://bit.ly/3K58GCD; Caminando Fronteras, ‘Monitoring the Right to Life – Year 2023’, January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yckuv3az}

^{[136] Cadena Ser, ‘La mayoría de los inmigrantes que llegan a Canarias en las últimas semanas no reciben asistencia jurídica’, 11 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/Eh1nRtk.}

^{[137] Gobierno de Canarias, ‘El Gobierno de Canarias acuerda con el Colegio de Abogados un mejor control de calidad en la atención a migrantes’, 10 November 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/dxbpb4dj; El Diario, ‘Las lagunas de la asistencia letrada que reciben los migrantes en Canarias: ”Reciben peor atención que los delincuentes”’, 12 November 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3jrzp7ek.}

^{[138] Irídia, see: https://iridia.cat/es/.}

^{[139] Irídia, ‘Nuevas vulneraciones de derechos humanos a las personas migrantes en Canarias, May 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3Zf2cW7.}

^{[140] EASO, ‘EASO support to Spain becomes fully operational’, 10 March 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3GpBGzC.}

^{[141] EUAA, ‘Operating Plan 2022-2023 agreed by the European Asylum Support Office and Spain’, 14 December 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3wVy5aD.}

^{[142] EUAA, ‘Operational Plan 2022-2023 agreed by the European Union Agency for Asylum and Spain’, May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3F92GWz.}

^{[143] EUAA, ‘Operational Plan 2023-2026 agreed by the European Union Agency for Asylum and Spain’, 12 June 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/m23pjfm7.}

^{[144] EUAA personnel numbers do not include deployed interpreters by the EUAA in support of asylum and reception activities.}

^{[145] Information provided by the EUAA, 26 February 2024. In the figures above, the same persons may have been included under different profiles, if a change of profile took place in the course of 2023.}

^{[146] Information provided by the EUAA, 26 February 2024.}

^{[147] El Periódico de Canarias, ‘Gobierno y abogados inician un proyecto de orientación jurídica para personas presas, refugiadas y migrantes’, 1 August 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/35CwUSL.}

^{[148] Gobierno de Canarias, ‘El Gobierno gasta 25 millones al año en mantener un buen servicio de asistencia jurídica gratuita en Canarias’, 4 May 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3K5bNdN.}

^{[149] Information provided by the IOM on 4 March 2022.}

^{[150] CEAR, ‘Refugiados y migrantes en España: Los muros invisibles tras la frontera sur’, December 2017, 8.}

^{[151] Cruz Roja Española, see: https://www2.cruzroja.es/.}

^{[152] Ministerio de Transportes, Movilidad y Agenda Urbana, ‘El Gobierno consolida el sistema de respuesta ante accidentes en la mar con el nuevo Plan de Seguridad y Salvamento Marítimo 2021-2024’, 7 December 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/34yvUOW.}

^{[153] Contrainformacion, ‘Helena Maleno, acusada de las muertes de personas migrantes por alertar de una patera en peligro’, 2 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/ChLtxcN.}

^{[154] El Diario, ‘Marruecos archiva la causa contra la activista española Helena Maleno por sus llamadas a Salvamento Marítimo’, 11 March 2019, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/2eZTPKO.}

^{[155] Cadena Ser, ‘La defensora de derechos humanos Helena Maleno, expulsada de Marruecos’, 12 April 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2Z02lDO.}

^{[156] El Salto Diario, ‘Más de 700 organizaciones y 10.000 personas exigen a Pedro Sánchez protección para Helena Maleno’, 20 April 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3Crs9WO.}

^{[157] Caminando Fronteras, ‘La Organización Mundial contra la Tortura señala a España y Marruecos por criminalizar a Helena Maleno’, 15 November 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3pOe2b5.}

^{[158] Europapress, ‘Barcelona se personará en el juicio en Italia contra Salvini por el bloqueo del Open Arms’, 27 January 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3r3CUJB.}

^{[159] La Vanguardia, ‘Arranca el juicio contra Salvini por bloquear el desembarco del Open Arms’, 23 October 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/34BeKR2.}

^{[160] La Notizia, ‘Processo Open Arms, nuova udienza a Palermo per Salvini. Il vicepremier: “Rischio 15 anni di carcere”’, 13 January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3ym0o2o; Il Sicilia, ‘Salvini a palermo per il processo Open Arms, incontrerà i dirigenti del partito’, 1 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3ztnu2z.}

^{[161] Ansa, ‘”Difeso la sicurezza nazionale”, Salvini in aula per Open Arms’, 12 January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yueuuyv6.}

^{[162] Diario Siglo XXI, ‘Vox pide investigar ONG que “colaboran” en tráfico de migrantes y Marlaska responde: “Si tiene datos formalice denuncia”’, 20 September 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3BhgpIL}

^{[163] Defensor del Pueblo,’El Defensor del Pueblo recomienda al Ministerio del Interior modificar las instrucciones sobre polizones extranjeros para proteger a posibles solicitantes de asilo’, 28 February 2019, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/EeZQGsA.}

^{[164] Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Polizones extranjeros. Tratamiento de solicitudes de asilo’, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3L2Cpue.}

^{[165] Público, ‘Interior cambia de criterio y se niega a mejorar la protección de los polizones que piden asilo en España’, 21.4.22, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3IYVDkn.}

^{[166] El Diario, ‘El buque de rescate ‘Aita Mari’ se enfrenta a una multa de un millón de euros tras una denuncia de Italia de 2020’, 27 January 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/yc8bnpk2.}

^{[167] Heraldo, ‘Marruecos impidió en los últimos tres años a 10.000 migrantes entrar en Ceuta y Melilla’, 7 December 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/yb4nyek4.}

^{[168] Atalayar, ‘El acuerdo entre España y Marruecos hace descender la inmigración irregular en un 26%’, 4 January 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3GSnwe5; Público, ‘La nueva relación con Marruecos atenúa la migración hacia Canarias’, 3 September 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3kA7ooI.}

^{[169] El Español, ‘Marruecos cierra el paso de migrantes al sur de España: así es la nueva y peligrosa ruta a Canarias’, 16 August 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/VhLueuB.}

^{[170] Atalayea, ‘España y Marruecos refuerzan su alianza estratégica en tiempos de pandemia’, 16 July 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/qhLpsq2.}

^{[171] Atalayar, ‘Marruecos y España: causas de las recientes fricciones’, 28 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3axCRjU; Atalayar, ‘La embajadora de Marruecos rebaja la tensión y asegura a España que no varía la postura sobre Ceuta y Melilla’, 23 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3dqMgvt.}

^{[172] El Faro de Melilla, ‘España entregará 130 vehículos a Marruecos para el control fronterizo y de inmigración’, 11 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/rhxt3Oc.}

^{[173] ECSaharaui, ‘El Gobierno de Pedro Sánchez regala a Marruecos otros 31 millones de euros en vehículos 4×4’, 5 May 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/YhLac11; El Independiente, ‘España destina a Marruecos 86,8 millones en dos años para financiar el ‘tapón’ de la inmigración ilegal’, 19 May 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3Ks3A1c; Europa Press, ‘España ha dado más de 90 millones en ayudas a Marruecos en tres años para controlar la inmigración ilegal’, 19 May 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3nHtkNB.} 

^{[174] The Objective, ‘El Gobierno ya lleva donados 118 millones a Marruecos para vigilar sus fronteras y costas’, 18 February 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/3ddwvp7j.}

^{[175] Info Libre, ‘El Gobierno aprueba la entrega de 30 millones para que la policía marroquí corte el paso a los migrantes’, 17 May 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/33TPHYN.}

^{[176] La Moncloa, ‘XII reunión de alto nivel Marruecos-España. 1-2 febrero 2023. Declaración conjunta’, February 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3L2NOfZ.}

^{[177] ECSaharaui, ‘Covid-19 cambia la ruta de la inmigración ilegal procedente de Marruecos; del estrecho de Gibraltar a Gran Canarias’, 19 July 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/nhLoOE1.}

^{[178] El País, ‘España y Frontex negocian una operación para cerrar la ruta migratoria canaria’, 7 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/lhLemcp.} 

^{[179] El País, ‘Frontex renueva un año más sus operaciones en España’, 29 January 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3LbMQvy.}

^{[180] Cadena Ser, ‘Arranca la Operación Minerva ’22 en los puertos de Algeciras y Tarifa’, 17 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3vQFDuW; El Mundo, ‘Interior destina más policías de plantilla para la Frontera del Tarajal en Ceuta’, 17 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3dbIXu5.} 

^{[181] Ministerio del Interior, ‘Policía Nacional coordina y dirige junto a FRONTEX la operación conjunta MINERVA en los puertos de Algeciras, Ceuta y Tarifa’, 23 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/2cvn899u.}

^{[182] Français Fois, ‘Le Maroc, nouvelle voie migratoire pour les Soudanais en route vers l’Europe’, 29 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3C6BHu9.} 

^{[183] El Diario, ‘Sánchez apoya la propuesta de Marruecos para la autonomía del Sáhara’, 18 March 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3DkgbAl; Melting Pot, ‘La Spagna approva il piano di autonomia marocchino nel Sahara Occidentale’, 2 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3deloRg.}

^{[184] Asociaicón Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), ‘APDHA califica de “miserable” el cambio de posición del Gobierno respecto al Sáhara’, 21 March 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3DfX4aE.}

^{[185] El Diario, ‘Concentraciones en apoyo al Sáhara Libre: “Han creído que podrían imponer su voluntad sobre un pueblo soberano”’, 24 March 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/35fHO0W; RTVE, ‘Unas 2.000 personas se manifiestan frente a Exteriores contra el giro del Gobierno: “Sánchez, el Sáhara no se vende”’, 26 March 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3iEQAZy.}

^{[186] Cadena Ser, ‘Argelia suspende el Tratado de Amistad y Cooperación con España tras el “injustificable” giro de su postura en el conflicto del Sáhara’, 9 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3QeYcRS.}

^{[187] El País, ‘España y Argelia se reencuentran’, 4 November 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3fa3nj8j.}

^{[188] Boletín Oficial del Estado (BOE), ‘Convenio entre el Reino de España y el Reino de Marruecos sobre cooperación en materia de seguridad y de lucha contra la delincuencia, hecho en Rabat el 13 de febrero de 2019’, 7 April 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3BMrxi2; La Vanguardia, ‘El BOE publica un acuerdo España-Marruecos en seguridad coincidiendo con el viaje de Sánchez a Rabat’, 7 April 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3P40ZvG.}

^{[189] El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Las ONG creen que el acuerdo España-Marruecos vincula delincuencia e inmigración irregular’, 29 April 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3A6ONG3; El Pueblo de Ceuta, ‘España y Marruecos renuevan su cooperación en materia de seguridad’, 29 April 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3A5a5nF; Andalucía Acoge, ‘España y Marruecos renuevan su cooperación en materia de seguridad vinculando delincuencia organizada e inmigración “irregular”’, 28 April 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3zI3MoG.}

^{[190] News EsEuro, ‘Inmigración ilegal: La UE prevé destinar más de 500 millones de euros a Marruecos (Medios españoles)’, 15 August 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3A1CxW6.}

^{[191] Europa press, ‘España destina 30 millones de euros a Marruecos contra el tráfico de personas y gestión de flujos migratorios’, 18 October 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3Fcs0eC.}

^{[192] Voz Populi, ‘Indignación en la Guardia Civil por los 120M de Sánchez a Marruecos: “Pedimos los mismos medios”’, 13 January 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3ZZMOyn; Vox Populi, ‘Sánchez ha dado al menos 120 millones a Marruecos a fondo perdido solo en gestión de fronteras’, 12 January 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3JeXR0H.}  

^{[193] Le Monde, ‘Madrid salue le rôle « essentiel » du Maroc en matière migratoire’, 20 April 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/498kZrr; Diario de Sevilla, ‘El Gobierno defiende sus políticas migratorias y de fronteras’, 19 April 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/4kjarzp2; La Razón, ‘Marruecos erige a Sánchez como freno de la inmigración ilegal’, 15 April 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/c85fcfwt}

^{[194] El Debate, ‘La mayor presión marroquí sobre la inmigración dispara la ruta argelina a Baleares’, 17 July 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3f6wsh93.}

^{[195] El País, ‘El Gobierno deniega el asilo a rescatados por el ‘Aquarius’’, 28 September 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/FtT2CT3.}

^{[196] El País, ‘España deniega el 94% de las solicitudes de asilo del ‘Aquarius’’, 13 March 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/ttUJdTn.}

^{[197] La Vanguardia, ‘Siete denegaciones de asilo a refugiados del ‘Open Arms’’, 27 October 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2OU0k6E.}

^{[198] Las Provincias, El Gobierno se olvida del Aquarius, 15 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/khMwBrt.}

^{[199] Las Provincias, ‘El fiasco del Aquarius’, 21 May 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/33NYRWY.}

^{[200] Cadena Ser, ‘Cuatro años después los migrantes de la flotilla del ‘Aquarius’ se sienten abandonados’, 15 June 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3Q0GYqV.}

^{[201] Cadena Ser, ‘Cinco años después de la llegada del Aquarius: ‘Nos consideran ilegales cuando nos invitaron a venir’’, 13 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/bdekddkb.}

^{[202] Ibid, 10.}

^{[203] El País, ‘España expulsa 30 inmigrantes por día desde 2013’, 7 January 2019, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2QvlvqC.}

^{[204] Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Informe anual 2022 – Volumen I ‘, March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3FQgoxY, 169.}

^{[205] Irídia, ‘Nuevas vulneraciones de derechos humanos a las personas migrantes en Canarias, May 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3Zf2cW7.}

^{[206] Consejo General Abogacía Española, Fundación Abogacía Española, ‘Asistencia jurídica en llegadas marítimas Guía práctica para la abogacía’, August 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3hWAyda.}

^{[207] Europapress, ‘Un total de 22.082 personas han sido atendidas a pie de playa en lo que va de 2018, casi la cifra total de 2017’, 30 July 2018, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2RNdsKL; El Periódico, ‘La inusual llegada de pateras a Málaga obliga a buscar soluciones de emergencia’, 13 November 2018, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2Rygwed.}

^{[208] El Diario, ‘El nuevo centro de migrantes del puerto de Málaga dedica 2,3 m² por persona, la mitad que un calabozo para detenidos’, 28 July 2019, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/AeLTIAg.}

^{[209] La Opinión de Murcia, ‘El CATE provisional de Cartagena abrió sin luz ni Internet y carece de zona de desembarco’, 9 October 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/41WDRqE; La Verdad, ‘La apertura del CATE de Cartagena depende ahora de una prórroga sobre el suelo’, 4 February 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3sr4uUK.}

^{[210] Andalucía Información, ‘El Nuevo CATE de Motril entrará en funcionamiento en 2022, según Gobierno’, 23 September 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3tfkxEz.}

^{[211] Ideal, ‘Las obras del centro de inmigrantes de Motril terminan en octubre después de tres años de polémica y retrasos’, 4 October 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3yocpEs.}

^{[212] APDHA, Derechos Humanos en la Frontera Sur 2021, March 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3poRtJn, 60.}

^{[213] Irídia, ‘Nuevas vulneraciones de derechos humanos a las personas migrantes en Canarias, May 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3Zf2cW7.}

^{[214] Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Infome anual – Volumen I – Anexo A Informe Completo del Mecanismo Nacional Dd Prevención (MNP), March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3ZXvRmP.} 

^{[215] La Razón, ‘Interior aumentará en casi 2.000 plazas la capacidad de acogida temporal a migrantes en Canarias’, 13 December 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/4p3c3bmr}

^{[216] Europapress, ‘El centro para la acogida temporal de migrantes en Mérida atiende a 196 personas en su primera semana en servicio’, 3 August 2018, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2RZQosk.}

^{[217] APDHA, ‘Derechos Humanos en la Frontera Sur 2019’, February 2019, 36-37.}

^{[218] CEAR, ‘Libro blanco del sistema de protección internacional en España una propuesta desde la experiencia de CEAR’, February 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3Kyxm4b, 207.}

^{[219] Ministerio de Inclusión, Seguridad Social y Migraciones, ‘Resolución de 14 de noviembre de 2022, de la Dirección General de Atención Humanitaria e Inclusión Social de la Inmigración, por la que se establece la planificación de prestaciones, actuaciones y servicios que deben atenderse dentro del programa de atención humanitaria mediante acción concertada para los ejercicios 2023-2026’, 14 November 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3zgGrus.}

^{[220] La Moncloa, ‘Interior obtiene 13,5 millones de euros de la UE para el refuerzo de las capacidades de atención policial a los migrantes’, 16 April 2021, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/5n8xf6jb.}

^{[221]  Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Informe anual 2022 – Volumen I ‘, March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3FQgoxY, 170.}

^{[222] La Opinión de Muercia, ‘El CATE provisional de Cartagena abrió sin luz ni Internet y carece de zona de desembarco, 9 October 22, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/42EH5PW.}

^{[223]  Europa Sur, ‘El Defensor del Pueblo urge a crear un protocolo para los CIE y CATE, 13 September 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3JJZwtB.}

^{[224] Information provided by UNHCR in April 2024.}

^{[225] Information provided by Accem in February 2024.}

^{[226] Information provided by UNHCR in April 2024.}

^{[227] El Derecho, ‘Aprobado el Programa Nacional de Reasentamiento de Refugiados en España’, 22 February 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3Zfg3fo.}

^{[228] Ministerio de Inclusión, Seguirdad Social y Migraciones, ‘Inclusión recibe en Barajas a 201 refugiados sirios procedentes de Líbano en el marco del Programa Nacional de Reasentamiento’, 6 May 2022, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3BIOqCV.}

^{[229] Information provided by UNHCR in March 2023. See also ECRE, ‘Pathways to Protection: Mapping visa schemes and other practices enabling people in need of international protection to reach Europe safely’, March 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/367erxzj.}

^{[230] Information provided by UNHCR in April 2024.}

^{[231] La Moncloa, ‘Referencia del Consejo de Ministros’, 21 February 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3YXn1pF.}

^{[232] IOM Spain, ‘OIM y ACNUR dan la bienvenida al reasentamiento acelerado de refugiados sirios de Turquía en España tras el terremoto’, 5 March 2023, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3yiAzQV.}

^{[233] Europa Press, ‘El Gobierno amplía su programa de reasentamiento para recibir a más refugiados en los próximos tres años’, 3 May 2023, available in Spanish at: https://rb.gy/d806s.}

^{[234] El Periódico de Canarias, ‘España dedica 1,8 millones a reasentar a 1.200 refugiados de Turquía, Costa Rica y Líbano’, 24 December 2023, available at: https://tinyurl.com/2583r4fe.}

^{[235]  Europa Press, ‘España recibirá a 1.500 personas de América Central y Sur en 2024-2025 por la ampliación del programa de reasentamiento’, 5 February 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/3bvj78j8.}

^{[236] El Español, ‘Más de un centenar de refugiados nicaragüenses serán reasentados en Valladolid para trabajar en un proyecto pionero’, 13 October 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/yxacumsn.}

^{[237] Accem, ‘Accem recibe a 70 personas refugiadas de Nicaragua en el marco de un proyecto piloto para trabajar en el sector de las renovables’, 12 December 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/2cjt55sd.}

^{[238] Europa Press, ‘La X Marcha por la Dignidad exige en Ceuta “vías legales y seguras” para migrar “que no pongan en riesgo a las personas”’, 4 February 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/mrxxk46w.}

^{[239] La Moncloa, ‘España y EEUU colaborarán para impulsar la migración regular desde América Central y del Sur’, 27 April 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/3r2fe95c; Texas Tribune, ‘New Biden plan will let people in Latin American countries apply to legally enter U.S., Canada or Spain’, 27 April 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/49aMFvI.}

^{[240] Commissioner for Human Rights, Council of Europe, ‘Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe – Dunja Mijatović – Report following her visit to Spain from 21 to 25 November 2022’, 13 April 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3u4SJan.}

^{[241] Accem, ‘Preocupación por la deriva europea que dificulta el acceso de las personas refugiadas a la protección internacional’, 19 June 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/mt88bj9b}

^{[242] CEAR, ‘CEAR pide protección para las personas afectadas por el terremoto de Marruecos y las inundaciones de Libia’, 21 September 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/ph24884y.}  

^{[243] CEAR, ‘CEAR pide corredores humanitarios y garantizar la protección de la población civil de Gaza’, 13 October 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/42faydff.}

^{[244] Accem, ‘España recibe a 167 personas refugiadas procedentes de Líbano dentro del programa de reasentamiento’, 2 November 2023, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/4htz4fjw}

^{[245] Information provided by the UNHCR in April 2024.}

^{[246] Ministerio de Inclusión, Seguridad Social y Migraciones, ‘El Gobierno aprueba el Programa Nacional de Reasentamiento de Refugiados en España para 2024 por el que se acogerá a 1.200 personas’, 9 January 2024, available in Spanish at: https://tinyurl.com/y6yha8mz.}

^{[247] Human Rights Watch, ‘World report 2023. Spain, events of 2023’, January 2024, available at: https://tinyurl.com/44xwptyk.}