Access to the territory and push backs

Spain

Country Report: Access to the territory and push backs Last updated: 22/05/23

Author

The sections below describe the numerous hurdles faced by migrants and asylum seekers in accessing Spanish territory and subsequently the asylum procedure. This includes incidents of push backs, collective expulsions, police violence (especially on the Moroccan side of the border), bilateral agreements with third countries to swiftly return persons back, and dangerous attempts by the concerned individuals to reach Spanish territory or cross over the border fences.

At the beginning of 2022, Spain has been granted more than 1 million Euros by Europol to fight against transnational organized crime, which includes smuggling and trafficking in human beings.[3]

In January 2022, more than 40 organisations denounced the plan of the Government to use facial recognition surveillance tools at the borders of Ceuta and Melilla, and warned that the use of artificial intelligence could result in discriminations and violation of fundamental human rights. The Spanish Government has allocated 4.1 million euros for the deployment of said tools at the borders; the operations to install them are still ongoing at the moment of writing, despite the initial plan to finalise them in 2 years, starting from 2019.[4]

In the 2022 annual report on the migratory assessment at the southern border, the Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA) called the Spanish Government to recognise its accountability for the deaths of migrants at the Spanish southern border, that are a consequence of its border management policies. It also called to the Government to stop hiding such situation and to adopt an appropriate protocol for the identification of migrants’ bodies.[5] More recently, APDHA noted that migrant women have double possibility to lose their lives in the sea compared to migrant men. In addition, it affirmed that human rights violations suffered by migrant women are deeper than those suffered by migrant men.[6]

In view of the reopening of the land borders between Spain and Morocco, closed for two years due to the pandemic, in May 2022 the Spanish Government announced that border management authorities would start using drones to survey Melilla’s border, together with the air surveillance already in place.[7]

In June 2022, the body of a young migrant was found in the river Bidasoa, located at the border between Spain and France. In about 1 year, 5 persons drowned in the river while transiting from Spain to France, and the Government of the Basque Country reiterated its call to create safe corridors for the transit of migrants.[8] Since 2015, France reinforced its border surveillance and (race profile) checks for counter-terrorism purposes, thus the Spanish city of Irún, its river Bidasoa and the land border between France and Spain became the scenarios of various migrants’ deaths: some drowned trying to cross the river separating the two countries, others died while trying to cross railroads, and others committed suicide.[9] In August 2022, the Director of Migration and Asylum of the Basque Country denounced the selective and racist checks carried out by the French police at the borders, which push migrants to look for more dangerous and risky ways to access France.[10] In September, the support group Irungo Harrera Sarea and the Welcome Network of Irún (Red de Acogida de Irún) launched a joint press release stating that border controls at the Spanish-French border have intensified, which could by itself increase the risk of individuals trying to cross by swimming in the river.[11]

In July 2022, the organisation Caminando Fronteras denounced the systematic use of force by Moroccan and Spanish authorities guarding the fences of Ceuta and Melilla, where border management activities are carried out through the use of military tools, such as tear gas, rubber bullets and fire.[12]

In August 2022, the Maritime Rescue (Salvamento Marítimo) rescued three migrants drifting in a watercraft.[13]

In September 2022, the Government-Delegate in Melilla announced the start of the works for setting up a biometric identification system also at the border with Morocco.[14]

In the same month, the Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA) held that the agreement between Morocco and Spain was the real cause behind the death of a young woman and the injures of other three persons, where Moroccan authorities opened fire, on the beach of Akhfennir in Tarfaya, against a boat setting sail towards the Canary Islands.[15] Following the incident, different organisations gathered in front of the Moroccan embassy in Madrid to protest against what had occurred.[16]

In mid-October, six Yemenis reached Ceuta by swimming from Morocco.[17] At the beginning of December, a Yemeni man died while attempting to do the same.[18]

At the end of November, three men were detected by Salvamento Maritimo at the port of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria after traveling during 12 days in the rudder blade of a ship from Nigeria to the Canary Islands. The migrants were immediately referred to the hospital, as they presented symptoms of dehydration and hypothermia.[19] The Minister of Interior denied their asylum applications at first instance, despite UNHCR recommendation that at least one of them be granted  a residence permit for humanitarian reasons, due to his vulnerability and health conditions.[20] Following the re-examination of the denial, the Minister of Interior admitted their applications, and authorised the three asylum seekers to access the Spanish territory, while their asylum requests will follow the accelerated procedure.[21]

At the beginning of December, a migrant entered Mellilla using a paraglider to pass the border fence.[22]

In 2022, the construction of a wall around the port of Bilbao continued; the main objective is to prevent migrants to access ferries leaving Spain for the UK through this route. The decision to build such a wall was taken a couple of years before. The wall will be 4 metres high and 520 metres wide, will include a metallic fence, and had a cost of 300,000 Euros.[23]

Especially during 2022, arrivals through the migratory route from Algeria to the Balearic Islands increased, also due to the rupture of the friendship agreement between Algeria and Spain, following the declarations of the Spanish President of the Government to support the Moroccan sovereignty over the Western Sahara in spring 2022. In 2022, a total of 176 boats with 2,637 migrants reached the archipelago.[24] In 5 years (from 2018 to 2022), more than 5,000 Western Saharan nationals have obtained protection in Spain by obtaining the status of statelessness.[25]

Together with other the EU countries, in December 2022, Spain announced its participation in two initiatives against smuggling in the Mediterranean, and its commitment to support operational activities to manage migration.[26]

In September 2022, the newspaper ‘El Salto’ in collaboration with the Foundation ‘Rosa Luxemburgo’, presented the movie ‘Anatomy of borders’, with the aim of contributing to the reflexion on the human right to migrate.[27]

A report on pushbacks published by The Left in the European Parliament in December 2022 indicates that instrumentalization of migrants is part of the managing of the Moroccan-Spanish border in Ceuta, and that testimonies of survivors of border violence by border authorities have been registered in Melilla.[28]

In a meeting held in March 2023, the five members (Spain, Italy, Malta, Greece and Cyprus) of the Mediterranean Alliance agreed on preventing migrants’ deaths by impeding irregular departures from countries of origin through the reinforcement of bilateral agreements with third countries, as well as by increasing returns.[29]

UNHCR carries out monitoring activities at Spanish borders, including through its physical presence in Melilla (with a team of three persons), Algeciras (with a team of three persons covering also Ceuta and the province of Cádiz), Málaga (whose field team additionally covers the provinces of Granada and Almería), and in the Canary Islands. Regarding the latter, UNHCR had a team of two persons during 2021, and it counted on an additional staff member during 2022, all based at Gran Canarias and covering all the islands of the archipelago. UNHCR’s work at the borders aims at supporting the authorities in the early identification of the international protection needs of migrants arriving by boat and in fostering the access to the asylum procedure of persons in need of international protection. The activities that UNHCR’s teams implement are mainly provision of information on asylum, training addressed at different stakeholders, and support to different actors with the registration, reception and assistance of new applicants. In addition, UNHCR promotes a fair and rapid procedure allowing a border management in line with the international obligations that Spain has, including the UN Refugee Convention.[30]

Thanks to its monitoring activities, in 2022 UNHCR reached out to 40,000 newly arrived migrants, asylum seekers, refugees, including beneficiaries of temporary protection, and a stateless person, to provide individual counselling or group information sessions on international protection, asylum, temporary protection and statelessness procedures, the Spanish asylum law and policies, and refugee rights in Spain, mainly to those in Andalusia, the Canary Islands, Ceuta, Madrid and Melilla. Individual counselling was provided in person or via telephone helplines or email.[31]

Based on the needs of persons arriving to the Canary Islands, in June 2022 Accem started to implement a project providing an interpretation service funded by the UNHCR. Such a service is directed at supporting the authorities and other actors involved in the reception of sea arrivals, including in detention and reception centres and in the provision of medical services, with the aim of improving the identification of persons in need of international protection among those arriving by boat and of fostering their access to the asylum procedure and to specialized assistance. The service counts with a team of 12 interpreters (8 men and 4 women) speaking different languages and dialects, i.e. Arabic, English, French, Dahiya, Hassanal, Bambara, Soninke, Pular, Wolof and Diola. The interpreters have been trained on international protection, prevention of and response to gender-based violence, child protection, protection of LGTBIQ+ persons, the psychological impact of migration process, as well as on the role of interpreters and on professionalism. Through this service, a total of 8,125 persons were assisted in 609 interventions. The main nationalities were Morocco, Mali, Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire and Guinea, and the main languages covered by the service included Dariya, Bambara, Wolof, Mandinga, Djula and Soninke. For 2023, the project counts with a team of 6 interpreters (2 women and 4 men) speaking the same mentioned languages.[32]

Monitoring is carried out by visiting and assessing the situation in border facilities. This includes assessing the conditions in the facilities, the access to information on asylum, the way in which asylum interviews are carried out, as well as the access to interpretation and legal assistance. UNHCR generally supports, advises and recommends authorities and NGOs on how to improve access to territory and the procedure, in compliance with international and national legal standards.

 

Arrivals in the enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla

The number of persons arriving in Ceuta and Melilla by land in 2022 was 2,289, marking an increase compared to 2021, when 1,845 persons entered the enclaves.  In addition, a total of 293 personas arrived by sea to the enclaves, being 169 those who reached Melilla (representing a +333.3% increase compared to 2021), and 124 Ceuta by sea (a 69.3% decrease compared to the previous year).

Arrivals in Spain by land: 2022
Point of entry Number of irregular arrivals
Ceuta  1,114
Melilla   1,175
Total arrivals by land  2,289
Arrivals in Spain by sea: 2022
Point of entry Number of irregular arrivals
Ceuta 124
Melilla 169
Total arrivals by sea  293

Source: Ministry of Interior, Immigración Irregular 2022. Datos acumulados del 1 de enero al 31 de diciembre, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3ZCcctU.

In recent years, the main obstacles regarding access to the Spanish territory are faced at the Ceuta and Melilla borders and checkpoints. These obstacles are mainly due to the impossibility of asylum seekers to cross the border and exit Morocco. There are several reported cases concerning refusal of entry, refoulement, collective expulsions and push backs, including incidents involving hundreds of people throughout 2021 and 2022.

One of the ways used by migrants and asylum seekers to enter the territory is the attempt to climb border fences in groups. The increasing numbers of attempts to jump border fences are linked to the fact that migrants and asylum seekers, and mostly Sub-Saharan nationals, still face significant obstacles in accessing the asylum procedure at Spanish borders, as a result of border controls exercised by the Moroccan police on the Moroccan side of the border.[33] This can be illustrated when looking at the data provided by the Government on asylum claims lodged at the border, which indicates that no asylum application was made at Ceuta’s border checkpoint, and that persons from sub-Saharan countries are underrepresented among the nationalities of asylum seekers at Melilla’s border.

Following renovations at the Ceuta and Melilla fences that started in 2019 in order to remove the steel wire, different organisations reported that the height of the fences were increased by 30%, thus further increasing the risk of breaching human rights standards.[34] In August 2020 the Government announced an enlargement of the asylum post at the Melilla border with a budget €138,000,[35] and of the asylum post in Ceuta with a budget of €125,000, despite the fact that the latter has never been used since it was opened.[36] A research carried out by the newspaper Público and the Fundación porCausa denounced the shadow industry of migration control in Spain, referring to more than €660 million in 5 years, and 1,677 public contracts signed without public tenders.[37] In July 2022, the Council of Ministers approved the plan to carry out additional renovations to the borderline fence in Ceuta, allocating  a budget of 4 million Euros. Such renovations are part of the Plan to reinforce and modernize the land border protection system in Ceuta and Melilla, which started in 2019.[38]

Similarly to the previous update of the report, which provided a list of incidents at the border in 2021, the following list provides an overview of several incidents that were reported at the border in 2022 and at the beginning of 2023:

  • At the beginning of March 2022, around 2,500 people attempted to enter Melilla by jumping the fence, and almost 500 managed to access to the enclave.[39] Many organisations denounced the violence used by the police against migrants that attempted the jump, which resulted in about 20 people being hospitalised and 30 pushed-back.[40] Two videos disseminated through social networks show how the Guardia Civil violently attacked some migrants descending from the fence on Spanish soil.[41] The Spanish Ombudsman requested information to the Minister of Interior regarding the actions of the police in that circumstance,[42] but the Ministry of Interior publicly defended the police officers’ conduct, stating that it had been the result of the violent actions of migrants trying to cross the border by using force.[43]
  • The land border between Morocco and the two Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, which was closed since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, was reopened only on 17 May 2022.[44]
  • On 24 June 2022, around 2,000 persons attempted to enter Melilla from Morocco by jumping the fence, resulting in 37 persons dead and hundreds injured, while 133 individuals managed to enter the Spanish enclave.[45] Different organisations (i.e. Amnesty International, UNHCR, IOM, ELIN, CEAR, APDHA) expressed concerns regarding the use of indiscriminate violence in border management activities.[46] In addition, various organisations (i.e. Coordinadora de Barrios,[47] Amnesty International), migrants’ groups, political parties (i.e. Unidas Podemos, ERC, Bildu, Compromís), the Spanish Episcopal Conference, and the Mayor of Barcelona asked for an independent investigation to be carried out in order to clarify the situation and to ascertain political accountability.[48] The Spanish Public Prosecutor Office opened an investigation to ascertain whether a violation of fundamental rights had occurred, due to the seriousness of the allegations.[49] The Ombudsman also announced an investigation and visited Melilla in July to collect information and testimonies on the incident.[50] Gatherings and demonstrations were organised by NGOs in different Spanish cities to protest against the deaths that occur at the southern border.[51] Additionally, 74 NGOs signed a letter sent to different UN Special Rapporteurs asking for the investigation and persecution of the incidents, as well as for a joint visit of the Rapporteurs to the place where the events occurred, to foster a dialogue with Spain and Morocco so that the two countries would adopt  appropriate measures to avoid such acts and conducts in the future.[52]
  • The UN Secretary General also condemned the violence and the excessive use of the force, 50 MEPs requested the European Commission to start an investigation, while the Council of Europe asked Spain to carry out an independent, comprehensive and effective investigation.[53] After declaring that the jump was a violent and organised act coordinated by traffickers and smugglers, and that it represented an attack against the territorial sovereignty that was positively solved, the President of the Spanish Government rectified his positions and expressed concerns regarding the deaths, but continued to support the response given by Spanish and Moroccan police officers.[54] Among the persons who attempted to jump and those who achieved to enter Melilla, there were many Sudanese nationals. Many of them witnessed the violence used by Moroccan police officers, who beat and killed migrants.[55] Testimonies of similar acts performed  by the Spanish police against migrants were also collected from those who were pushed back.[56] All those who achieved to reach Melilla applied for asylum.[57] According to the Moroccan Association for Human Rights, immediately after the incident, Morocco sped up the burial of the dead migrants, without carrying out autopsies nor identifications.[58] Besides, since the beginning of July, Morocco started to prosecute migrants for different crimes, such as smuggling, violence, armed assault injury, damage to public goods.[59] By mid-August, a total of 60 migrants and asylum seekers were convicted by Morocco with prison sentences ranging from 11 months to two years and a half.[60] An investigation carried out by the Moroccan Association for Human Rights denounced that 64 persons continued to be missing one month after the incident.[61]
  • According to an investigation carried out by the National Council of Human Rights, Spanish police officers used violence against migrants and did not assist the wounded persons who were jumping or falling from the fence.[62] In a letter sent to the Spanish President, Amnesty International remarked that eight human rights violations had been committed in occasion of the jump, including the breach of the principle of non-refoulement and of the right to apply for asylum.[63]
  • In September 2022, Morocco denied entrance to its territory from Melilla to three Members of European Parliament and Observers who wanted to investigate the facts occurred on 24 June.[64]
  • At the beginning of November, BBC launched a documentary accusing the Spanish Government for not impeding the deaths of the migrants in Melilla. It also documents the violence used by Moroccan police against migrants, as well as the pushbacks carried out by the Spanish police.[65] Following the release of the documentary, different stakeholders (i.e. more than 100 NGOs, the Spanish Ombudsman, UN experts, Members of the European Parliament) asked for an independent and comprehensive investigation of the facts.[66] In particular, the Spanish Ombudsman underlined that legal guarantees for migrants and refugees were not respected during the jump, and that they did not have any other option to seek asylum than jumping the fence,[67] concluding that migrants were refused entry at the border with Morocco without respect for existing legal framework in respect.[68] Similarly, the UNHCR questioned the legality of people being returned to Morocco in this manner,[69] and confirmed that many of them were vulnerable individuals.[70] A group of lawmakers who visited the scene in November denounced the use of 86 tear gas projectiles by the Spanish Civil Guard.[71] On the contrary, the Government reiterated that the intervention on the fence was “proportionate”, and that no deaths were registered on Spanish territory as a consequence of the action.[72] However, a joint investigation carried out by El País and Lighthouse Reports established that, among others, at least 1 Sudanese migrant died on Spanish territory.[73] These findings were considered credible by different Members of the Parliament composing the Committee of Interior, who concluded that the incident had in fact happened in the Spanish side of the border, and that the Spanish Civil Guard pushed back 470 persons in collaboration with the Moroccan Police,[74] a number that was also confirmed by the Spanish Ombudsman.[75] Following such disclosures and conclusions, different stakeholders (i.e. the Progressive Union of Public Prosecutors, the Popular Party, the Ciudadanos Party, etc.) called for the immediate resignation and the cessation of the Minister of Interior.[76]
  • In the occasion of the World Migrants Day on 18 December, hundreds of people protested in Valencia, both advocating for migrants’ rights, and commemorating the migrants dead in Melilla in June 2022.[77] A press release published by different organisations, groups and individuals on the same day denounced the denial of the Government to assume its accountability for such deaths.[78]
  • In December, Amnesty International launched a campaign directed at asking justice for the persons dead in Melilla. The organisation denounced the violation of international law as well as the cover up by both by Morocco and Spain, considering that the investigations carried out so far were inadequate and stagnant.[79] The NGO CEAR launched a video gathering the testimonies of five persons who witnessed the incidents.[80]
  • In the same month, a Sudanese young man who was pushed back to Morocco on 24 June, applied for asylum at the Spanish Embassy in Rabat, with the aim of challenging the declarations of the Minister of Interior on the possibility to apply for asylum at the Spanish Embassies and Consulates, as well as at the Spanish land borders of Ceuta and Melilla without jumping the fences.[81] In March 2023, his asylum interview was held at the embassy and the letter for his safe-conduct to Spain was received by the Spanish Ambassador in Morocco.[82]
  • During the same month, the Public Prosecutor decided to close the file on the case and declared the Minister of Interior unconnected to the deaths, which were considered as a responsibility of Moroccan authorities, but it decided to open a file against the officers who attacked and hit migrants with stones.[83] More than 150 organisations denounced said decision, for allowing impunity for national authorities.[84]
  • In occasion of the lunch of its 2022 annual report on Spain, Human Rights Watch expressed concerns on how the country responded to the incident occurred in Melilla and for what can happen in the future in relation to pushbacks.[85]
  • In a hearing held at the European Parliament in January 2023, the Spanish Minister of Justice informed that the incident was closed by the Public Prosecutor Office following a thorough investigation.[86]

The above incidents illustrate how migrants and asylum seekers continue resorting to dangerous ways to enter Ceuta and Melilla, sometimes resulting in their deaths. Further incidents at the border are likely to continue in 2023.

The persisting problem of pushbacks (devoluciones en caliente)

The situation at borders and regarding access to territory has gradually worsened since March 2015, after the Spanish government adopted an amendment to the Aliens Act, introducing the possibility to “reject at borders” third-country nationals that are found crossing the border illegally.

The amendment, introduced through the adoption of the Law “on the protection of citizen security”,[87] includes a specific regulation within the Aliens Act concerning the “Special regime of Ceuta and Melilla”. This regime consists of three elements:

  • It rules that “those foreigners who are detected at Ceuta’s and Melilla’s border lines when trying to pass the border’s contentious elements to irregularly cross the border, can be rejected to avoid their illegal entry in Spain”;
  • It declares that “these rejections will be realised respecting the international law on human rights and international protection ratified by Spain”;
  • Lastly, it states that “international protection claims will be formalised at the ad hoc border point in line with international protection obligations.”

In practice, when a person is found within Spanish border territory, which includes the land between the Moroccan and Spanish border, they are taken outside the Spanish border through existing passages and doors controlled by border guards.

The amendment aimed at legalising the push backs (devoluciones en caliente) practiced in Ceuta and Melilla, and has been criticised for ignoring human rights and international law obligations towards asylum seekers and refugees by several European and international organisations such as UNHCR,[88] the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights,[89] and the United Nations Committee against Torture. Critics regard the fact that people are not able to request asylum, and that the law mostly affects groups in vulnerable situation, including unaccompanied minors and victims of trafficking.

These circumstances made Spain one of the European countries with the highest numbers of refusal of entry at the border between 2017 and 2019.

In 2020, however, the number of refusals of entry for Spain dropped to 3,515, while in the EU-27 (UK already excluded) it was 137,840 in total. According to Eurostat, even lower numbers were registered in 2021, with 2,290 refusals of entry were issued. In 2022, similar 7,205 similar decisions were issued; while this represented an increase compared to the two previous years, it was in no way close to pre-pandemic numbers.

In previous years, several cases have been brought to court to challenge the conduct of Spanish border control patrols and guards.

N.D and N.T v Spain

One case before the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) concerned two Sub-Saharan men – from Mali and the Ivory Coast respectively – who alleged having been summarily and collectively expelled from Spanish territory on 13 August 2014 as part of a group of over 75 individuals. On 3 October 2017, the ECtHR held unanimously that there had been a violation of the prohibition of collective expulsions of the right to an effective remedy in conjunction with said prohibition under Article 4 Protocol 4 and Article 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).[91]

On 13 February 2020, the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights (GC) published its judgment in the case of N.D and N.T v Spain concerning the immediate return of the two men to Morocco after attempting to cross the border of the Melilla enclave,[92] overturning the 2017 judgment. The GC addressed whether the removal of the applicants amounted to an expulsion or ‘non-admission’ of entry. It interpreted expulsion in the generic sense, consistent with previous findings, to mean any forcible removal irrespective of, inter alia, the lawfulness of an applicant’s stay. Indeed, a collective expulsion is characterised as an absence of a reasonable and objective examination of each applicant’s individual case. In the present case, both requirements were satisfied.[93]

Moreover, the GC was not convinced that the State had failed to provide a genuine and effective access to means of legal entry, and concluded that the applicants had in fact placed themselves in jeopardy by participating in storming the border rather than using the existing procedures. In particular, the GC observed that the applicants could have applied for visas or for international protection at a border crossing point. It concluded that the applicants’ expulsions did not violate Article 4 Protocol 4. However, it added that this finding does not alter the broad consensus within the international community regarding the obligation for States to protect their borders in a manner compliant with Convention rights, highlighting the importance of respecting the principle of non-refoulement.[94]

Furthermore, the GC found that the applicants placed themselves in an unlawful situation by deliberately attempting to enter Spain as part of a large group rather than using available legal procedures. The lack of available individual procedures to challenge the removal was therefore deemed a consequence of the applicant’s unlawful attempt to gain entry. The GC held there was no violation of Article 13 in conjunction with Article 4 Protocol 4.[95]

This GC’s decision has been heavily criticised by civil society organisations and other several stakeholders, including the Progressist Union of Public Prosecutors,[96] who saw a lost opportunity in condemning the Spanish authorities for their pushback practices at the border.[97]

In November 2022, Netflix launched the documentary ‘The Gourougou trial’ which narrates the stories of two migrants from Africa, ND & NT, who in 2014 joined other 500 migrants to jump the fence in Melilla from Morocco to enter Spain, and that were pushed back.[98]

For a more exhaustive explanation, see AIDA Country Report: Spain 2020 Update.

The Constitutional Court’s ruling of 19 November 2020

On 19 November 2020, the Spanish Constitutional Court (Tribunal Constitucional) endorsed the Organic Law on the protection of citizen security, which establishes a special regime for the rejection at the borders in Ceuta and Melilla.[99] After analysing the constitutional doctrine and the ECtHR’s jurisprudence, the Constitutional Court concluded that the law is in line with the Spanish Constitution. Regarding specifically the legal framework on Ceuta and Melilla, the Court concluded that the special regime foreseen is constitutional because it is in line with the ECtHR’s jurisprudence on the material execution of a rejection at the border. Nevertheless, the Court underlined the importance of judicial control and effective remedies to appeal a rejection at the border. In addition, the Court stated that a rejection decision at the border should be issued considering all the guarantees provided by national and international law, and that the procedure for allowing or refusing legal entry to Spain must be real and effective. The Court further held that law enforcement officials have to pay particular attention to vulnerable groups (i.e. children, pregnant women and elderly persons).

Following the decision, more than 80 NGOs asked the Government to “put an end to such practices, at least up until a legislative framework is adopted in line with the Constitutional Court’s requirements”.[100]

Other pushback cases and incidents

Pushback practices in Spain have been strongly condemned in recent years. This includes a decision adopted on 12 February 2019 by the United Nations (UN) Committee on the Rights of the Child regarding the case D.D. vs Spain.[101]

In February 2014, 15 migrants drowned after attempting to reach the Spanish enclave of Ceuta by sea and were repelled with rubber bullets and smoke grenades by officers from the Guardia Civil. Since then, the so known “El Tarajal” case was decided and removed from the register in different occasions, until in June 2022 the Supreme Court (Tribunal Supremo) rejected the cassation appeals lodged by different NGOs against the decision to remove the case from the register taken by the Provincial Court of Cádiz.[102] Previous updates of this report provide more details on the case. (See AIDA Country Report on Spain – 2021 and 2020 Updates).

Since the event in El Tarajal, each year many NGOs, groups of activists and other stakeholders join in Ceuta at the border, in order to commemorate the deaths and strive for justice.

Throughout 2022, and at the beginning of 2023, pushback practices continued to be reported.

The Dutch Council for Refugees started to work, in collaboration with the NGO Caminando Fronteras, on advocating against and exposing pushbacks practices at Spain’s southern borders and the Canary Islands, as well as in improving asylum policies in the country, by training their staff in project management and fundraising.[103]

  • In February 2022, a judge in Ceuta (Juzgado de lo Contencioso Administrativo número 1) ordered the Government to bring back to Spain the children who were returned to Morocco in August 2021, establishing that the repatriation was not in line with Spanish legislation and that it generated a serious risk for the children involved.[104] In fact, in mid-May 2021, in a 36-hours’ time span, around 8,000 migrants – a quarter of them minors – entered the city of Ceuta One man died in the attempt, and the police immediately expelled at least 4,000 persons,[105] without any clarity on the procedure put in place by the Minister of Interior for carrying out such expulsions.[106] Different human rights organisations denounced collective pushbacks of migrants,[107] including children, as well as the lack of legal assistance.[108]
  • In August 2021, the Ministry of Interior announced having started returning the children who entered Ceuta in May to Morocco.[109]
  • In June 2022, the Public Prosecutor Office denounced the Government-Delegate in Ceuta and the Vice-president of the City for malfeasance in the illegal expulsion of Moroccan children.[110] In July 2022, a Senegalese man who was pushed back in the same occasion denounced Spain at the European Court of Human Rights for being expelled to Morocco without any personal identification, nor legal support, interpretation and identification of his needs.[111]
  • In August 2022, two organisations (Red Española de Inmigración y Ayuda al Refugiado and Asociación para el Desarrollo Integral L’Escola AC) formally required to the Instruction Judge nº 2 of Ceuta to exercise the private prosecution (acusación particular) in the criminal proceeding against the Government Delegate and the First Vice President of Ceuta for the crime of perversion of the course of justice, for their involvement in the return of 55 unaccompanied Moroccan children in August 2021.[112] The Red Española de Inmigración y Ayuda al Refugiado was finally admitted to the criminal proceedings.[113] In addition, the disclosure of email exchanged between different Ministers and the Government of Ceuta showed that the Chief of the Area of Minors of Ceuta had informed the Government of the illegality of the repatriations of the children to Morocco as contrary to international, European and national laws.[114]
  • In October, the Council of Ministers decided to remove the Government Delegate of Ceuta from her position, due to her involvement in said criminal proceedings.[115]

As previously mentioned, on 24 June 2022, around 2,000 persons attempted to enter Melilla from Morocco by jumping the fence, resulting in 37 persons dead and hundreds injured, and in 133 persons who achieved to enter the Spanish enclave.[116] Reports of pushbacks have been presented by Amnesty International[117] and through the testimonies of the migrants and asylum seekers who were subjected to pushbacks.[118]

The Jesuit Migrant Service and the Moroccan Association for Human Rights (AMDH) denounced that, since 2020, migrants reaching the Chafarinas Islands (a Spanish archipelago in the Mediterranean, located at around 4 km from Morocco) are systematically pushed-back to Morocco instead of being transferred to Melilla.[119] At the beginning of 2022, a case regarding the pushback of around 50 persons, who arrived at the archipelago in August 2021, was unadmitted and dismissed by the Court of Melilla, which accepted that the Spanish “Guardia Civil” had the right to issue refusals of entry (rechazo en frontera) in these cases.[120]

Bilateral agreements with third countries

Spain has signed different bilateral agreements with third countries such as Mauritania, Alegria, Senegal and Morocco, in order to swiftly return individuals back.

Since 2019, Mauritania has become the main country to receive deportation flights from Spain (chartered by Frontex), inter alia due to the increase of arrivals to the Canary Islands. This is based on a bilateral agreement signed back in 2003.[121] In January 2020, 72 persons from Mali, out of which at least 14 were asylum seekers, were returned to Mauritania in the framework of a bilateral agreement with Spain, as Mauritania accepts returned migrants who have transited through its territory.[122] One of the returned persons stated that they had not be been provided food during three days; that they had been abandoned at Mali’s border with Mauritania; and that they were subject to mistreatment by the Mauritanian authorities.[123] This case of return takes part as one of the seven flights that the Spanish Ministry of Interior has been carrying carried out since June 2019. As denounced by different organisations, these practices amount to indirect pushbacks, are in violation with the no-refoulement principle and are contrary to UNHCR’s call not to return Malians to their country of origin.[124]

In November 2020, Spain further resumed the expulsion of migrants, which had been suspended following the COVID-19 spread. Reports of repatriations of migrants without guarantees (i.e. legal assistance, the possibility to apply for asylum, etc.) from the Canary Islands were made also in 2022.[125]

In December 2020, Algeria joined Morocco and Mauritania as third countries accepting repatriations of migrants.[126] Thus, Algerian migrants were returned from Spanish CIEs.[127] In the same month, Spain increased the deportation of Moroccan migrants arriving to the Canary Islands.[128] In November 2020, Spain had also reached a similar agreement with Senegal.[129] Consequently, the Government announced in February 2021 that it would resume deportation flights to Senegal by the end of the month.[130] The agreement also foresees the reinforcement of the Spanish monitoring mechanism in Senegal against irregular migration, through the allocation of a Guardia Civil’s patrol boat and an airplane.[131] The flight that the Minister of Interior organised at the end of February for repatriating migrants from the Canary Islands to Senegal was finally cancelled due to a COVID-19 outbreak at the CIE of Hoya Fría. It was then rescheduled to 10 March, but it was once more suspended.[132] Apparently, the difficulties experienced in the organisation of the deportation flights were also due to Senegal’s resistance to carry them out in practice.[133]

It should be further noted that the Government addressed a tender of €10 million to airlines, aiming exclusively at fund exclusively deportation flights.[134] Moreover, in 2020, the Minister of Interior announced that it was tripling financial support to African countries with the aim of stop irregular migration.[135] In November 2020, the Government also adopted a plan aimed at providing third countries (e.g. Senegal, Mauritania and Morocco) with equipment such as vessels, helicopters and airplanes in order to stop migration and increase expulsions of rejected applicants for international protection.[136]

In September 2022, Spain and Senegal started negotiations to resume deportations of migrants irregularly staying in the Spanish territory.[137] During the same month, the Directorate-General of the National Police announced the decision to send six systems for the identification of forged documents to Gambia, with the aim of fighting smuggling rings.[138]

According to a report published in 2022 by the European Migration Network (EMN), Spain has readmission agreements with some African countries (Cape Verde, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea Conakry, Mali, and Niger).[139] No information has been found on how widely they are applied nor how many persons are readmitted through such agreements.

 

Arrivals by sea

In 2022, 28,930 persons and 1,704 boats reached Spain via sea routes.[140]

Out of the total number of persons arriving by sea, more than a half (15,682 persons) disembarked on the Canary Islands, which became one of the main destinations for boats since the last months of 2019, while 12,955 persons arrived on mainland and the Balearic Islands. Only a few migrants disembarked in Ceuta (124 persons) and Melilla (169 persons).[141]

Regarding the number of deaths in the Mediterranean, several figures have been reported. The NGO Caminando Fronteras (Walking Borders) estimated that 2,390 persons died while reaching Spain in 2022, being 1,784 those who lost their life in the Canary route.[142] It further reported that 288 of victims were women, 101 were children, and that a total of 64 vessels disappeared with all persons on board. In addition, according to the organisation, 11,522 persons died at the Euro-African Western border from 2018 to 2022; that means an average of 6 deaths per day.[143] In the annual report on the assessment of the migratory situation at the Spanish Southern borders, the Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía indicated that 1,901 persons disappeared in 2022, and that the Canary route continues to represent the deadliest journey to reach Spain.[144]

In November 2022, more than 100 organisations proposed to introduce a set of measures for a respectable treatment for migrants dead and disapperaded in the sea and for their families. Among other measures, the proposal foresees the creation of an information office of the Ombudsman, that would oversee providing comprehensive assistance to families of the dead and disappeared, as well as of managing a DNA database connected with Interpol. The proposal, led by the Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), is part of the campaign #VidasSinRastro (lives without track), and was sent to the Spanish Ombudsman, the Government and to different parliamentary groups.[145]

The dismantlement of a smuggling and drug trafficking network brought to light the ‘boats’ business’, definition referring to the high costs migrants are required to pay to reach Spain by boat. The prices that the smuggling network requested migrants to pay ranged between 4,000 and 7,500 Euros, depending on the services provided (including accommodation in caves).[146]

An investigation published in 2021 by the trade union of journalists in Andalucía and the producer EntreFronteras revealed the obstacles that media face when covering migration related issues at places where migrants mainly arrive by boat.[147] The report refers to the deterioration in press freedom that could be observed in relation to the lack of possibilities for journalists access to information and sources in at least 6 of the 7 main ports, which includes the different denounces of prior censorship in the Canary Islands, and the closure of the ports to journalists in Alicante and Murcia.[148]

In 2021, the Spanish Bar Association published a practical guide for providing legal assistance during arrivals by sea, with the aim of guaranteeing migrants the best service and protecting them in the framework of their rights and liberties.[149]

In 2022, the Spanish Red Cross implemented a pilot project in the Canary Islands, directed at identifying the persons who disappeared during the migratory maritime route to the archipelago. After investigating 45 shipwrecks, the organisation identified 101 persons disappeared.[150]

In the 2022 annual report, the Spanish Ombudsman underlines the increase of women with children in arrivals by sea in the last years, especially to the Canary Islands. The report also indicates that such change in the profile of newcomers has been the object of special interest and analysis by the institution, and that the necessity to improve the coordination among relevant stakeholders as well as the protocol for the humanitarian assistance with an age and gender perspective has been transmitted to the administration. [151]

A report published by the Programa Ödos[152] in June 2022 indicates that the 61% of the children assisted were girls (mainly accompanied), mostly fleeing due to the risk of being subjected to female genital mutilation.[153]

In June 2022, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs pushed to consider irregular migration as an ‘hybrid threat’ in the new NATO policy roadmap.[154]

 

Situation on the Canary Islands

As demonstrated by the figures above, boats arrivals to the Canary Islands continued in significant numbers throughout 2022. It is very likely that the Canary Island will continue to be one of the main point of entry to Spain for migrants and refugees throughout 2023, especially given the increased controls at the Ceuta and Melilla border points and the increased capacity of Morocco to control the Northern part of the country, inter alia through EU funds.[155] This is also due to the change of position of Spain in relation to the Western Sahara in 2022 and the consequent negative reaction of Algeria toward Spain.[156

The ‘Canary route’ continues to be the deadlier route to reach Spain, with 1,330 out of 1,901 registered deaths of migrants trying to reach Spain in 2022 recorded on this route.[157] In the 2022 annual report, the Spanish Ombudsman acknowledges the 1,532 deaths registered by the OIM in the western African-Atlantic route and informs about the claims he continues to receive by family members of persons disappeared. For this purpose, the body reports the intention to adopt a resolution aiming at improving the action protocols in such context.[158] A report published in October 2022 by the organisation Sir[a][159] details that the journey via the Canary route can last from 24-40 hours to 11-12 days according to the departure points (Morocco and Senegal, respectively).[160]

Nevertheless, while the focus has continuously been on the Canary Island during the last years, the so-called ‘Algerian route’ has also recorded many arrivals during 2022, especially to the Balearic Islands, Murcia and Alicante. Such a route registered an increase also in deaths and disappearances in 2022.[161]

Serious concerns regarding the access to reception, overcrowding and poor living conditions on the Canary Islands are described in the Reception Chapter of this report (see Access and forms of reception conditions). Regarding access to the asylum procedure, several shortcomings were reported in 2020, especially regarding the lack of legal assistance for migrants arriving by sea to the Canary Islands, resulting in important violations of their rights and the law.[162]

According to a thematic report published by the organisation Irídia[163] in May 2022, the discrimination in accessing rights, the lack of procedural guarantees and the permanent incompliance with existing norms at the borders are the main human rights violations identified by the organisation.[164]

As mentioned, to support the authorities in the early identification of international protection needs, in capacity building, in registration and assistance to newcomers, UNHCR deployed a team in the archipelago since January 2021. Similarly, EUAA (former EASO) deployed a team of experts to the Canary Islands in March 2021 with the aim of supporting the Spanish authorities to manage the reception centres, in light of the increase in arrivals of migrants and asylum seekers.[165] The EUAA 2022-2023 operation plan for Spain aims at supporting national authorities in designing and implementing a new reception model, and to ensured that standardised reception processes and procedures are adopted across the country.[166] Spain has received operational support by the EASO/EUAA since 2021. The 2022-2023 plan was amended in May 2022 to take into account the changes in the operational context in light of the invasion of Ukraine.[167]

Throughout 2022, the EUAA deployed a total of 53 different experts in Spain,[168] half of which were temporary agency workers. This included 27 administrative assistants, 4 intermediate asylum and reception programme and project management experts, 3 intermediate asylum information provision experts, 3 intermediate vulnerability experts, 3 operations officers, and other monitoring, legal and administrative staff (e.g. reception experts, asylum and/or reception statistics experts, etc.). As of 20 December 2022, there were still 47 EUAA experts present in Spain, mainly administrative assistants (26).[169]

In August 2021, the Government of the Canary Islands, together with the Bar Association and in collaboration with UNHCR, started to implement a project to provide legal assistance to detained persons, migrants and asylum seekers,[170] which was continued throughout 2022.[171]

Following a needs assessment realised at the end of 2020, IOM started its operations in the Canary Islands at the beginning of 2021, aiming at addressing the significant increase in arrivals. IOM’s operation is based in Tenerife, where the organisation managed a facility with 1,100 reception places (reduced to 1,054 due to COVID-19 prevention measures). With a staff of 53 employers, IOM provided for humanitarian reception places and direct assistance to migrants reaching the archipelago. The organisation’s work includes provision of legal assistance as well as the identification of vulnerabilities and addressing protection needs.[172] In June 2022, the organisation finalised its operations in the Canary Islands.

The renewal of agreements between Morocco and Spain in 2022 and the increasingly positive relations among the two countries are considered as one of the factors determining a decrease in the arrivals to the Canary Islands.[173]

Search and Rescue (SAR) operations

Since April 2015, the NGO CEAR, in coordination with other NGOs (including Accem), is running the campaign ‘UErfanos’ to denounce the deaths in the Mediterranean Sea and the breaches to the right to asylum by the EU, which produce more ‘UEorphans’. The webpage of the campaign contains updated information on number of arrivals and deaths on the route to Europe and Spain.

Maritime Rescue (Salvamento Marítimo), an authority under the Ministry of Transport, is responsible for search and rescue carried out in the search and rescue zone belonging to Spain and Morocco.[174] The Police (Guardia Civil) usually participates along with the personnel of Maritime Rescue in Almería, but not in Algeciras. The Maritime Rescue always informs the Spanish Red Cross (Cruz Roja Española)[175] of arrivals. The Spanish Red Cross notifies its Emergency Immediate Response Teams (Equipos de Respuesta Inmediata en Emergencia, ERIE) that operate in Almería, Motril, Málaga, Tarifa and Ceuta, where migrants are taken upon their arrival.

In December 2021, the Government approved the new Plan for Security and Maritime Rescue 2021-2024, with a budget of more than 173 million Euros.[176]

The ERIE is composed of Red Cross staff and volunteers who are usually medical personnel, nurses and some intercultural mediators. Their first action consists in a health assessment to check the state of health and detect medical needs and the preparation of a health card for each of the newly arrived persons, which contains their personal data. As already mentioned, UNHCR also deployed personnel in different points of arrival in Spain. The main objective of the presence of UNHCR is to work in the field of identification, referral and protection of people who need international protection.

After this health screening, the ERIE distributes food, water, dry clothes and a hygiene kit. Normally, men are separated from women in shelters. The Spanish Red Cross further provides humanitarian and health care at this stage. This process must be carried out within a period of 72 hours in accordance with the maximum term of preventive detention foreseen by the Spanish legal system.

Several worrying developments regarding limitations to search and rescue operations have been noted since the beginning of 2019, notably through the criminalisation of SAR activities carried out by NGOs.

One such example was the persecution of the Spanish activist Helena Maleno, founder of the NGO Caminando Fronteras, accused in 2020 by Salvamento Marítimo of being responsible of the deaths of migrants,[177] even after the charges of migrant smuggling and human trafficking held against her, which were dropped in March 2019 by the Appeal Court of Tangier.[178] In April 2021, while entering Morocco through Tangier, where she has been living with her family for 20 years, she was expelled from the country. In an urgent press conference organised after the incident, she has explained the reasons for which these charges were held against her, and urged the Spanish and the Moroccan Governments to stop criminalising her as human rights defender[179]. Following the incident, 700 organisations and 10,000 persons asked the Spanish Government to protect Helena Maleno.[180] In November 2021, the World Organisation against Torture included Helena Maleno among those activists in Europe who are criminalised for their solidarity with harassment, assault and torture.[181]

In January 2021, the Major of Barcelona expressed instead solidarity with NGOs involved in Search and Rescue activities. In the same month, the Municipality announced the intention to intervene as civil party in the criminal procedure in process in Palermo (Italy) against the former Italian Minister of the Interior Matteo Salvini, for impeding the disembarkation of the Open Arms boat in Italy. The Open Arms was carrying 130 migrants and refugees during the summer of 2019.[182] The judgement started in Palermo in October 2021.[183] The judgment is still pending at the time of writing of this report, with some hearings already held during 2022 and the beginning of 2023.[184]

In September 2022, a senator of the political party Vox asked the Government to investigate those NGOs collaborating with mafias in smuggling migrants. The Minister of Interior expressed doubts regarding this statement, and responded he should present a formal report if he possessed evidence pointing in that direction.[185]

It should be further noted that, in February 2019, the Spanish Ombudsman addressed a recommendation to the Ministry of Interior, asking to modify the instructions related to irregular immigrants as they affect possible asylum seekers found in vessels navigating in Spanish territorial waters.[186] The Minister of Interior accepted the recommendations, but the new instructions have not been published so far.[187] In April 2022 the Minister of Interior reverted its decision and refused to adopt the changes proposed by the Ombudsman.[188]

The role of Moroccan authorities in migration and border control

According to official data, the Moroccan Government declaring having impeded  the arrival of almost 15,000 migrants to Spain during the first 3 months of 2022, thanks to the deployment of its security forces, and that during 2021 it had prevented 63,121 attempts to enter Spain.[189] The decrease of arrivals of almost 26% in 2022 compared to 2021 has been connected also to the renewal of the cooperation between Morocco and Spain.[190] See the 2021 update of the AIDA report for more details on the issue on previous years.

In 2020, Morocco reinforced its controls to prevent migrants from entering Spain,[191] and the two countries strengthened their alliance during the pandemic in the field of migration control.[192] Regardless, some tensions between Spain and Morocco were reported throughout 2020 because of the situation in Ceuta and Melilla.[193] Tensions between the two countries newly increased in May 2021 following the hospitalisation of the Sahrawi leader in a Spanish hospital. Therefore, the Moroccan government eased border controls, and around 8,000 persons entered Ceuta, swimming from Moroccan shores.

In January 2021, the Council for Transparency and Good Governance (Consejo de Transparencia y Buen Gobierno) backed up a decision of the Minister of Interior to not disclose information on the financial support provided to Morocco aimed at fighting irregular migration, as it would damage public security and Spanish external relations.[194]

In November 2020, the Spanish Government announced it would provide the Moroccan Ministry of Interior with 130 vehicles for the purpose of border and migration control.[195] The tender amounts to €7,150,000 without VAT and the contract lasted 12 months. This tender was part of the programme named “Support to the integrated management of borders and migration in Morocco” that started on 17 April 2019 and finished on 17 April 2022. Overall, it seems that the contract involves a total of €91 million.[196]

rogramme, in May 2021 the Council of Ministers approved the allocation of 30 million Euros to the Moroccan Minister of Interior, for collaborating in funding the police with the aim of stop migrants before trying to cross the Mediterranean and reaching Spain.[197]

Following the XII High Level Meeting between Spain and Morocco held at the beginning of February 2023, the two countries issued a joint declaration establishing the renewal and reinforcement of the cooperation in the fight against irregular migration, border management, the fight against smuggling and the readmission of migrants in irregular situations.[198] Additional information on the details of such an agreement were not available at the time of writing of this report.

The closure of the Moroccan borders, along with the COVID-19 pandemic and the Spanish migration policy in the Mediterranean,[199] are probably the main reasons for the notable increase in arrivals on the Canary Islands registered since the end of 2019, despite the higher risks that such a route involves. In November 2020, the Spanish Government further announced a joint mission with Frontex aimed at limiting arrivals and closing the ‘Canary migratory route’.[200] In January 2021, Frontex and Spain agreed on renewing the activities of the EU agency for one more year, with 257 officers deployed covering the Gibraltar Strait and the Alborán Sea, as well as the Canary Islands.[201]

On 17 June 2022, Frontex launched the operation ‘Minerva 2022’ in Algeciras, Tarifa and Ceuta; it lasted until mid-September, with 101 officers deployed by participant States.[202]

In addition, Morocco (together with Algeria) became the new route for Sudanese refugees migrating to Europe, due to the serious political instability in Libya, the violence in such country and the militias controlling its territory.[203]

In March 2022, the President of the Spanish Government changed the historical position of Spain in relation to the auto determination of Western Sahara, by announcing to support Morocco’s proposal of granting a regime of autonomy to such area, that entails recognition of the Moroccan territorial sovereignty over said territories.[204] The Association for Human Rights in Andalucía lamented the policy change adopted by the Spanish Government, and called for an immediately rectification of the declaration.[205] Numerous gathering and demonstrations have been organised in various Spanish cities to support the Sahrawi population and to protest against the new Government’s position.[206]

Consequently, in June 2022 Algeria suspended the friendship treaty and froze trade with Spain.[207]

In April 2022, an agreement on security cooperation and fight against crime reached between Spain and Morocco in February 2019 entered into force, in coincidence with the visit of the Spanish President of the Government to Rabat. The agreement, in force for an indefinite term, provides for the collaboration of the two countries in the fight against different forms of crime, including irregular migration.[208] Migreurop and EuroMed Rights denounced its content for linking migration to border security and to criminality, with the risk of leading to more rights violations at the borders.[209]

In August 2022, the EU announced the intention to allocate more than 500 million Euros to Morocco for the period 2021-2027, a budget that is 50% higher than the previous one, including for border management and police cooperation.[210]

In October 2022, the Council of Ministers authorised a granting of 30 million Euros to Morocco within the international police cooperation framework, with the aim of supporting its deployment of personnel in the fight against smuggling and the migration management.[211]

In January 2023, the Civil Guard complained for the non-repayable 120 million Euros that the Spanish Government granted to Morocco for the management of borders during 2019 and 2022, and denounced the shortage of the resources received for the same purpose.[212]

Denial of asylum following disembarkation from the Aquarius vessel

In September 2019, the CIAR started to deny asylum to some of the persons rescued in the Mediterranean Sea by the vessel Aquarius in 2018. Similarly, persons disembarked in Barcelona from the Open Arms’ vessel were denied asylum and the right to reception conditions, thus raising heavy criticism from experts.[213] By March 2020, the trend seemed to be confirmed, as 94% of asylum applications lodged by individuals who arrived with the Aquarius were denied, meaning that just 4 out of 62 cases decided by the CIAR so far have received international protection.[214] A high number of negative decisions was issued throughout 2020.[215]

By November 2020, the Spanish government had granted international protection to only 9 persons out of 374 who applied for asylum, while 49 of them were denied any form of protection and 300 of them are still waiting an answer on their application after 2 years and a half.[216] The same situation persisted during 2021.[217]  According to available information, in June 2022, just 58 persons out of 629 had received asylum, 200 applications were denied, and 93 are still pending of a decision.[218]

Police stations, CATE and CAED

All adults arriving to mainland by boat are placed in Detention for up to 72 hours in police facilities for identification and processing. This is also the case of families and women travelling with children, while children who arrive unaccompanied are usually taken to the competent protection centre.[219]

All persons rescued at sea are issued an expulsion order. If the person who irregularly entered Spain and received an expulsion order lodges an application for international protection, the expulsion order is suspended during the asylum procedure and resumes only in case of rejection of the application. If the person does not apply for international protection, but the order cannot be executed within a period of 72 hours, migrants are transferred to detention in a Foreigners Detention Centre (CIE) to proceed with the expulsion. Most migrants who are sent there are eventually not removed from the country,[220] as Spain does not have bilateral agreements with the relevant countries of origin. Once the maximum 60-day Duration of Detention in CIE has expired, the person is released with a pending expulsion order.

Shortcomings concerning access to legal assistance for persons arriving by sea have been reported in recent years. This includes contacting lawyers only following the notification of the expulsion order rather than at the moment of arrival of migrants in Spain. Lawyers meet with clients once they are in the CIE, but these interviews are in most cases collective and are conducted in the presence of police officers. The 2022 annual report of the Spanish Ombudsman confirms such challenges and shortcomings.[221]

Despite certain improvements put in place by the Government of the Canary Islands, a thematic report published by the organisation Irídia in May 2022 confirms the challenges that migrants still face in accessing legal assistance and asylum.[222]

In August 2021, the General Council of the Spanish Bar Association published guidelines on legal assistance during maritime arrivals, that contains practical guidance for lawyers on how to guarantee a quality legal assistance to newcomers, including information on how to access the asylum procedure, and the right to defence.[223]

In addition, in order to respond to the increasing number of arrivals, from 2018 the Spanish Government put in place resources in order to manage arrivals and to carry out the identification of persons’ vulnerabilities in the first days of arrival. Specific facilities for emergency and referral have been created: these are referred to as Centres for the Temporary Assistance of Foreigners (Centros de Atención Temporal de Extranjeros, CATE) and Centres for Emergency Assistance and Referral (Centros de Atención de Emergencia y Derivación, CAED).[224]

  • CATE are managed by the National Police and are aimed at facilitating the identification of persons by the police, i.e. recording of personal data, fingerprinting etc. In practice these are closed centres which function as police stations and all newly arrived persons must pass through CATE. The maximum duration of stay in CATE is 72 hours.

As of the end of 2022, there were CATE in all the main points of sea arrivals: San Roque-Algeciras in Cádiz, Almería, Motril in Granada,in Málaga, Cartagena, Balearic Islands, Barranco Seco in Las Palmas de Gran Canarias, Tenerife, Arrecife in Lanzarote, Fuerteventura. CATE are usually large facilities; the one in San Roque has a capacity of about 600 places, for example. The one in Málaga has a capacity for 300 persons, with a space of 2.3m² per person, which is a 42.5% less than what is foreseen by the law for those detained in police station’s prisons. Concerns relating to the conditions of detention, i.e. overcrowding and violation of the right to free movement, have been raised in vain.[225] The construction of a new CATE in Cartagena, announced in 2020, was due to be finalised in 2021, but its construction was finalised in September 2022.[226] The Government further announced the construction of two additional CATEs in 2021, namely in Motril (Granada), [227] which constructions work finalised in October 2022, but it still didn’t open at the time of writing of this report,[228] and in Las Palmas on the Canary Islands, which  was opened  in Barranco Seco with a capacity of 1,000 places.[229]

Based on available information, the Government has not adopted (or at least not yet published) any legal instrument defining and regulating these centres created to manage sea arrivals.[230] The same was highlighted also by the Spanish Ombudsman in its capacity as National Mechanism for Prevention of Torture in its 2022 annual report, which underlines that such facilities are considered as an “extension” of the National Police stations on which they depend. Thus, they are subject to the same regime as police stations.[231]

  • CAED are open centres managed by NGOs, i.e. the Spanish Red Cross and CEAR, under the coordination of the Directorate-General for Inclusion and Humanitarian Assistance (Dirección General de Inclusión y Atención Humanitaria, DGIAH) Ministry of Inclusion, Social Security and Migration, and are usually large centres where certain assistance services are provided, including information, social and legal assistance.[232] For example, the CAED in Chiclana de la Frontera, Cádiz is managed by the Spanish Red Cross and has capacity for 600-700 persons. Its aim is to establish the status of each newly arrived migrant and to facilitate them the possibility of contacting family members and friends across Spain and the EU.[233]

As of February 2022, there was a total of eleven CAED managed by NGOs (i.e. CEAR, Red Cross, etc.).[234] In 2023, the Directorate-General for Humanitarian Assistance and Social Inclusion of Migrants plans to reduce the number of such facilities as well as the number of reception places due to the decrease in the occupancy. The plan is to reduce the capacity from 1,410 to 1,060, and the number of facilities to 9.[235]

In April 2021, the Minister of Interior received 13.5 million Euros for improving the police capacity to respond to migrants’ arrival. Such budget will be used to improve the conditions and infrastructure of the CATE in Barranco Seco, create two additional mobile CATEs, as well as to provide services and other necessary assistance.[236]

The 2022 annual report of the Spanish Ombudsman acknowledges the improvements made at the CATEs of Barranco Seco, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, while highlighting the necessity to adopt other measures to improve the infrastructures and the functioning regime of the last two. While regarding the centre in Barranco Seco, the institution considers it a model in terms of infrastructures and functioning regime, and it judged such CATE a model that could be copied by other similar facilities.[237] As a good practice the institution refers also to the fact that migrants can use their mobile phones and that they can go to open air in an appropriate space of the facility.

Police officers working at the CATE in Cartagena reported that it lacked of electricity and internet when it was opened in September 2022.[238]

In September 2022, the Spanish Ombudsman denounced the serious deficiencies of CATEs and called the Government to adopt a regulation for them, including also guarantee for migrants to denounce mistreatments.[239]

In its 2022 annual report on human rights at the Southern border, the Association for Human Rights in Andalucía (APDHA) denounced the lack of transparency and the information blackout by the Government on the situation and on data regarding CATEs.[240]

Legal access to the territory

At the end of 2021, the Government approved the National Refugees Resettlement Program for 2022,

which foresaw the resettlement in Spain of 1,200 refugees during the year A total of 1,112 refugees were finally resettled in 2022, mainly Syrians coming from Lebanon (but also Iranians, Eritreans, Nigerians, Sudanese and Afghans ).[241] In May 2022, 201 Syrian refugees were transferred to Spain from Lebanon, of which 95 were women, 21 men and 85 children.[242]

Newly resettled families were also channelled into the regional community sponsorship programmes and positive integration outcomes were registered for those families who completed the programmes, especially related to language learning, rapid access to employment and local inclusion. UNHCR supported the resettlement programme through its participation in the national resettlement coordination group and the community sponsorship initiative through a specific consultancy, which informed discussions on the way forward for these programmes in the future.[243]

In February 2023, the Council of Ministers approved the National Programme for Resettlement of Refugees in Spain for 2023, foreseeing a quota of up to 1,200 persons.[244] At the beginning of March 2023, a total of 89 Syrian refugees living in Turkey and affected by the earthquake were resettled to Spain.[245] Very few cases of humanitarian visa have been issued by Spain for Afghans after the evacuation, but it is not a commonly applied measure.

As specified in the section on Differential treatment, after the Taliban takeover in Afghanistan, Spain started to transfer persons fleeing the country, also by issuing visa to Spain to Afghans at the embassies and consulates in Iran and Pakistan.

Family reunification is another complementary pathway offered by Spain for legal access to territory.

 

 

 

[1] Ministerio del Interior, ‘Inmigración Irregular 2022. datos acumulados del 1 enero al 31 de diciembre’, January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3vPitov.

[2] Euro News, ‘El cambio de posición de España respecto al Sáhara provoca la reacción de Argelia’, 20 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3K1qzRF.

[3] Guardia Civil – Gabinete de Prensa, ‘España obtiene de Europol más de un millón de euros para luchar contra el crimen organizado transnacional’, 4 January 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3zssUix.

[4] El Periódico, ‘Expertos denuncian el plan del Gobierno para usar cámaras de reconocimiento facial en la frontera de Ceuta y Melilla’, 13 January 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3JB3mVD; Melting Pot, ‘Ceuta e Melilla: implementazione dell’Intelligenza Artificiale alla frontiera e la violazione dei diritti’, 20 January 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3bDN9lS.

[5] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía – APDHA, ‘Balance Migratorio Frontera Sur 2021’, February 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3vV1KQM.

[6] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía – APDHA,Derechos Humanos en la Frontera Sur 2022’, 7 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3JKLWpA.

[7] 20 minutos, ‘España utilizará drones para vigilar la frontera entre España y Marruecos en Melilla’, 12.5.22, available at: https://bit.ly/3djet9O.

[8] Cadena Ser, ‘Hallan el cadáver de un joven migrante en el río Bidasoa’, 18 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3SstI09.

[9] El Salto Diario, ‘Irun, el cerrojo migratorio de Francia’, 18 May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3JFTwSe.

[10] Donostitik, ‘El Gobierno vasco denuncia los «controles racistas» en la muga, Xabier Legarreta incide en que los migrantes arriesgan sus vidas para pasar a Francia’, 18 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QTS8hj.

[11] Donostitik, ‘Se dan «las condiciones» para más tragedias en el Bidasoa’, 29 Septemebr 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3F1Tnqs.

[12] El Faro de Melilla, ‘La ONG de Helena Maleno denuncia el “uso sistemático de la fuerza” en las vallas de Melilla y de Ceuta’, 21 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3JNuAs3.

[13] Ideal, ‘Salvamento rescata a tres migrantes que viajaban en moto acuática a 30 millas de Almería’, 14 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3HhJ7NJ.

[14] El Confidencial Digital, ‘Melilla inicia obras en la frontera con Marruecos para instalar un “sistema inteligente” de control biométrico’, 20 September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3h4h35J.

[15] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), ‘APDHA responsabiliza a los acuerdos de España con Marruecos de la muerte de una joven en el tiroteo a una patera’, 15 September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3kKJHKn.

[16] Público, ‘Las ONG se movilizan frente a la embajada marroquí en Madrid para denunciar la muerte de una migrante’, 19 September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3wutOKU.

[17] El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Seis yemeníes logran cruzar a Ceuta tras bordear a nado por Benzú’, 18 October 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3FsofSz.

[18] El Periódico, ‘Muere un migrante yemení al intentar entrar a nado en Ceuta’, 6 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3iDjJHL.

[19] Cadena Ser, ‘De Nigeria a Canarias en la pala del timón de un barco: 4.000 millas náuticas y 12 días sin comida’, 29 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3iFhIep; Público, ‘Hospitalizados tres hombres que llegaron a Gran Canaria tras pasar 11 días subidos en el timón de un petrolero’, 29 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Uyh0wG.

[20] Público, ‘España no admite a trámite el asilo de los tres migrantes que viajaron en el timón de un petrolero’, 5 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Uy4Q73.

[21] El País, ‘Interior autoriza a seguir en España al tercero de los polizones que llegaron a Canarias en el timón de un petrolero’, 7 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3VI9kcl.

[22] El Diario, ‘Un migrante entra a Melilla volando en parapente para superar la valla fronteriza’, 1 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Bc1wHH.

[23] El Salto Diario, ‘El muro antimigrantes del Puerto de Bilbao que engorda el negocio de la seguridad privada’, 21 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3jo9kjG.

[24] El Diario, ‘La ruta migratoria de Argelia hacia Balears se intensifica entre las denuncias por falta de medios y protocolos’, 6 January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3H9LcdO.

[25] Público, ‘Más de 5.000 saharauis han regularizado su situación como apátridas en España en los últimos cinco años’, 5 March 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3YwD5xC.

[26] Euro Efe, ‘España participa en dos iniciativas contra la migración irregular en el Mediterráneo’, 12 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Rd5hU7.

[27] El Salto Diario, ‘‘Anatomía de las fronteras’: el primer largometraje documental de El Salto’, 22 September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3D9pRPx.

[28] The Left in The European Parliament, ‘The black book of pushbacks’, December 2022, available at: https://adobe.ly/3kAFcSB.

[29] Rai News, ‘Condoglianze all’Italia dal vertice Med5: “Prevenire perdite di vite evitando partenze irregolari”’, 4 March 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3kWVDtj

[30]  Information provided by UNHCR in March 2023.

[31] Information provided by UNHCR in March 2023.

[32]  Information provided by Accem and UNHCR in March 2023.

[33] CEAR, Informe 2020: las personas refugiadas en España y Europa, June 2020, available at: https://cutt.ly/QjkYUYt, 74.

[34] Público, ‘Menos concertinas y más altura: colectivos de Melilla y Ceuta denuncian que las nuevas vallas continúan vulnerando los derechos humanos’, 29 August 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/QhcBFWN.

[35] El Faro de Melilla, ‘La oficina de asilo de Beni Enzar tendrá dos plantas para ampliar sus dependencias’, 26 August 2020, available at: https://cutt.ly/ihcZ7w0.

[36] Ceuta al Día, ‘Interior renueva los módulos que albergan la oficina de asilo del Tarajal a la que apenas ha dado uso’, 26 August 2020, available at: https://cutt.ly/chcM84v.

[37] Público, ‘El control migratorio en España: una oscura industria de más de 660 millones en cinco años’, 1 July 2020, available at: https://bit.ly/2OPisOV.

[38] Europa Press, ‘El Gobierno aprueba las últimas reformas de modernización de la valla de Ceuta por un importe de 4 millones’, 19 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3zRwh35.

[39] Público, ‘Valle de Melilla: Unos 2.500 migrantes subsaharianos intentan entrar en Melilla en el salto de la valla’, 2 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/34nk5eP; El País, ‘Unas 2.500 personas intentan acceder a Melilla en un salto a la valla’, 2 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3IXnq3w.

[40] Público, ‘Organizaciones de derechos humanos denuncian “la violencia policial” en el salto en la valla de Melilla’, 3 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3KsjojI.

[41] El País, ‘ONG internacionales exigen investigar agresiones a migrantes durante los saltos en Melilla’, 4 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3IVBJpc; El Nacional, ‘Un vídeo muestra cómo la Guardia Civil se ensaña con un migrante en Melilla’, 4 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3HRDRgq; El Diario, ‘Agentes policiales propinan una brutal paliza a un joven migrante cuando se descolgaba de la valla de Melilla’, 4 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3sRXjoZ.

[42] Europa Press, ‘El Defensor pide información a Interior sobre la actuación de la policía con una persona migrante en la valla de Melilla’, 4 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3CmRqmE.

[43] El Diario, ‘Marlaska defiende la actuación policial en la valla de Melilla tras las imágenes de la paliza a un migrante’, 4 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3vP0D6i

[44] Euronews, ‘Borders between Spain and Morocco reopen for the first time in two years amid improved relations’, 17 May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QazCBt.

[45] El País, ‘El masivo salto de migrantes en la valla fronteriza de Melilla, en imágenes’, 24 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QgDMHU; ECRE, ‘Atlantic Route and Spain: Deadly Tragedy at Melilla Border Causes Local Protests and International Outcry – More Deaths on the Atlantic’, Weekly Bulletin, 8 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3A9951S; Melting Pot, ‘Almeno 27 migranti muoiono in Marocco nel tentativo di superare le barriere verso Melilla’, 25 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3bNzgBW.

[46] Amnistía Internacional, ‘Amnistía Internacional expresa gran preocupación por los graves hechos ocurridos hoy en Melilla y en la frontera entre Marruecos y España, y pide una investigación independiente y exhaustiva’, 24 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3AdXPBr; CEAR, ‘CEAR denuncia el «uso indiscriminado de la violencia» en el control de fronteras’, 25 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3PfYXZr; El Pueblo de Ceuta, ‘La Asociación Elín condena la situación de violencia vivida en la frontera de Melilla’, 25 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3zLVwE3; Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), ‘APDHA muestra su consternación y exige una investigación tras el último salto a la valla de Melilla’, 25 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3pecrdq; RTVE, ‘Las ONG denuncian el “uso indiscriminado” de la violencia en la frontera de Melilla y apuntan a una cifra mayor de muerte’, 25 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QAapQA; ACNUR, ‘ACNUR y la OIM lamentan la pérdida de vidas en la valla fronteriza de Nador-Melilla’, 25 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QuO87r.         

[47] Coordinadora de Barrios, see: https://www.coordinadoradebarrios.org/.

[48] El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Coordinadora de Barrios exige una investigación y una política migratoria basada en la seguridad humana’, 24 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3p6qwd1; El Salto Diario, ‘Colectivos migrantes exigen responsabilidades políticas por las muertes en Melilla y convocan concentraciones’, 26 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3A914tQ; La Sexta, ‘Unidas Podemos solicita una investigación independiente para esclarecer la “tragedia humana” en la valla de Melilla’, 27 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3C0xEzv; El Mundo, ‘Ada Colau insta a investigar las muertes de Melilla y acusa al Gobierno de “racismo institucional”’, 25 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3PedQeE; Alfa y Omega, ‘Los obispos tras la tragedia en la frontera de Melilla: «No son invasores, son seres humanos»’, 25 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3zGDZNA; Noticiasde, ‘Podemos, ERC, Bildu y Compromís acuerdan pedir que el Congreso investigue las muertes en Melilla, pero no ponen fecha’, 30 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QiDjoS.     

[49] Cadena Ser, ‘La Fiscalía investigará las muertes de migrantes por el salto a la valla de Melilla’, 28 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3PiGfjQ.

[50] Defensor del Pueblo, ‘El Defensor del Pueblo acude a Melilla’, 19 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3vShP9R; El Faro de Melilla, ‘El Defensor del Pueblo visita Melilla para investigar los sucesos del 24J’, 19 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3zNGYE6.  

[51] La Vanguardia, ‘ONGs convocan protestas para denunciar muertes en fronteras Ceuta y Melilla’, 26 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QeGL3P.

[52] Andalucía Acoge, ‘74 Organizaciones sociales reclaman responsabilidades por las vulneraciones de derechos humanos en la Frontera Sur ante Naciones Unidas’, 18 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3vXvJrp 

[53] 20 minutos, ‘Cincuenta eurodiputados piden a la CE una investigación sobre las muertes en Melilla’, 29 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3zIa7k1; El País, ‘El secretario general de la ONU ve “inaceptable” el uso “excesivo” de la fuerza en la valla de Melilla’, 29 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Qxhe5t; Naiz, ‘La Eurocámara debatirá las muertes de migrantes en la frontera de Melilla’, 1 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3p73hiT; El Faro de Melilla, ‘El Consejo de Europa pide a España que se investiguen los sucesos de la valla’, 13 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3SGft7N.

[54] RTVE, ‘Sánchez responsabiliza a las mafias del violento salto a la valla de Melilla: “Fue un ataque a la integridad territorial”’, 25 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QAikgM; Público, ‘Sánchez lamenta ahora las muertes en el salto a Melilla, pero se niega a condenar la actuación de la gendarmería marroquí’, 29 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3vTMpAh.

[55] El Diario, ‘Los sudaneses que lograron saltar la valla de Melilla: “La policía marroquí nos ha pegado y ha matado a nuestros amigos”’, June, available at: https://bit.ly/3JLW55f.

[56] Público, ‘Devueltos en caliente en Melilla hablan desde Casablanca: “Los españoles nos pegaban por un lado y los marroquíes por detrás”’, 5 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3A8FaXB.

[57] Europa Press, ‘Todos los migrantes que saltaron la valla de Melilla el pasado viernes han solicitado protección internacional en España’, 29 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3AcJXYb.

[58] El País, ‘Marruecos se apresura a enterrar a los migrantes que intentaron entrar en Melilla entre críticas por la falta de investigaciones’, 26 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3paYmh3.

[59] Noticias de Navarra, ‘Juzgan este lunes en Nador a 36 de los 64 migrantes detenidos en Melilla’, 3 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Pf2ZkU; Ceuta Actualidad, ‘28 subsaharianos que intentaron cruzar a Melilla, a juicio el miércoles’, 15 August 2022, availablea: https://bit.ly/3zZI4g7.

[60] Info Migrants, ‘Morocco: 13 migrants sentenced for Melilla border crossing attempt’, 18 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3wkMtsG

[61] El Foro de Ceuta, ‘Más de un mes después, 64 personas siguen desaparecidas’, 28 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3BY73CP; Melting Pot, ‘Il massacro di Melilla e le responsabilità politiche: Spagna e UE’, 25 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3BgWgmJ

[62] El Diario, ‘Una institución oficial marroquí acusa a las autoridades españolas de no auxiliar a los heridos del salto de Melilla’, 13 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3BYl2ZC.

[63] Amnistía Internacional, ‘Carta al presidente Sánchez por las ocho violaciones de derechos humanos cometidas en la valla de Melilla y la frontera marroquí’, 29 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QFMeAt.

[64] Público, ‘Marruecos impide la entrada de tres eurodiputados y observadores internacionales a sus fronteras desde Melilla’, 20 September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3iGVEzS.

[65] BBC, ‘Migrants – Melilla : comment l’Espagne a laissé mourir des dizaines de personnes à sa frontière – BBC News Afrique’, 3 November 2022, available at: https://bbc.in/3Oo88YU; Público, ‘La BBC responsabiliza al Gobierno de la tragedia de Melilla con unas imágenes adelantadas por ‘Público’, 2 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3tNFCq5.

[66] Infolibre, ‘ONG exigen una investigación exhaustiva de la tragedia de Melilla: “Esto puede ocurrir de forma reiterada”’, 2 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3TVfoNc; La Vanguardia, ‘Amnistía denuncia que cuatro meses después nadie ha rendido cuentas por las 37 muertes ocurridas entre Melilla y Marruecos’, 2 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3tOW89i; La Vanguardia, ‘Más de 100 ONG piden a los portavoces de Interior que el Congreso investigue la tragedia de Melilla’, 7 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3tMrXQd; RTVE, ‘Tragedia de Melilla: “Lo peor ocurrió en territorio español”’, 8 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3AtiD7p; The Voice, ‘UN experts slam lack of accountability for ‘stark dehumanisation’ of African migrants at Melilla border’, 8 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3AsMSeX; Accem, ‘Accem: Melilla-24J: Es necesario seguir investigando por justicia y para que no vuelva a pasar’, 10 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3OrOjjG; CEAR, ‘CEAR reclama ante el Parlamento Europeo una investigación exhaustiva de la tragedia de Melilla’, 17 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3UWOJkr; Alfa y Omega, ‘Eurodiputados reclaman una comisión de investigación independiente sobre la tragedia de Melilla’, 18 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3V9ADf4.

[67] Antena 3, ‘El Defensor del Pueblo considera que no se respetaron las garantías legales en el salto a la valla en Melilla, 14 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3EOF9u8; La Voz de Galicia, ‘El Defensor del Pueblo señala a Exteriores e Interior y dice que los asaltantes de la valla de Melilla no tenían opción de pedir asilo’, 16 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3tKHhga

[68] Ele, ‘El Defensor del Pueblo concluye que se devolvieron migrantes en Melilla sin suficiente base legal’, 1 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3usXs29.

[69] El País, ‘Acnur cuestiona la legalidad de las devoluciones a Marruecos durante la tragedia de Melilla’, 30 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3P39zfz.

[70] El Faro de Melilla, ‘Acnur constata que muchos migrantes devueltos en Melilla eran vulnerables’, 2 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3UAUG5o .

[71] Yahoo, ‘Spanish inquiry shows tear gas use in border tragedy -lawmaker’, 7 November 2022, available at: https://yhoo.it/3tPS88O.

[72] El Faro de Melilla, ‘El Gobierno insiste en que la actuación en la valla “fue proporcional”’, 8 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3AzfenQ; Nius, ‘Marlaska insiste en que ningún migrante murió en territorio español tras difundirse las imágenes de la tragedia de Melilla’, 8 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Xlmygv; Heraldo, ‘Marlaska arremete contra el PP y otros grupos por la tragedia de Melilla; niega las muertes en España y la desatención a los heridos’, 30 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3P3A8RX.

[73]  El País, ‘Agonía a ambos lados de la frontera de Melilla’, 29 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3gYCeG7; La Sexta, ‘Tres indicios de que un migrante sudanés pudo morir en suelo español en la tragedia del salto de Melilla’, 30 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3ir3FbZ.

[74]  Público, ‘PP y PSOE vetan la comisión de investigación de la tragedia de Melilla sin que los diputados hayan visto las imágenes’, 18 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3ASDYYd; El País, ‘Masacre en Melilla: la peligrosa decisión de socialistas y populares’, 26 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3UfUybr; Público, ‘Los diputados confirman tras ver los vídeos que hubo devoluciones ilegales y omisión de socorro en Melilla’, 25 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3VxCtqp.

[75] RTVE, ‘El Defensor del Pueblo estima que 470 migrantes fueron rechazados en la valla de Melilla sin garantías legales’, 14 October 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3W0UoFZ.

[76]  Europa press, ‘La Unión Progresista de Fiscales pide el cese de Marlaska por la tragedia de Melilla’, 30 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Hb4TSY; Europa Press, ‘Ciudadanos exige la dimisión inmediata de Marlaska por la tragedia de Melilla: “Su irresponsabilidad es intolerable”’, 29 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3FqO45d; Nius Diario, ‘El PP exige que Marlaska dimita “por sus mentiras” sobre el salto a Melilla’, 29 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3F0jqhH.  

[77] El Salto Diario, ‘La ciudad de València se moviliza en el Día de las personas Migrantes’, 18 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3hMSHOa; Levante, ‘Cientos de personas protestan en València por el día del migrante: “Tenemos derecho a tener derechos”’, 18 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3PLFmlG.

[78] Caravana Abriendo Fronteras, ‘Comunicado internacional 18 de diciembre Día Internacional de las Personas Migrantes’, 16 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3jld19J

[79] Amnistía Internacional, ‘Marruecos / España: Investigaciones estancadas e inadecuadas, “denotan encubrimiento” seis meses después de 37 muertes en la frontera de Melilla’, 13 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3vb7hCk; El País, ‘Amnistía Internacional acusa a España y a Marruecos de violar el derecho internacional en la tragedia de Melilla’, 13 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3BRauuk.  

[80] CEAR, ‘5 testimonios sobre la tragedia de Melilla’, 16 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3varFmR.

[81] Público, ‘Reto a Marlaska: un sudanés devuelto a Marruecos en la tragedia de Melilla pide asilo en la embajada de España en Rabat’, 13 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3hLTzmc

[82] El Faro de Melilla, ‘Entrevistado el joven sudanés que pidió asilo en la Embajada española en Rabat hace tres meses’, 6 March 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3ZMxjJi; Público, ‘El salvoconducto a España del sudanés que sobrevivió a la tragedia de Melilla ya está en manos del embajador en Marruecos’, 8 March 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3YDmmIM.

[83] El Diario, ‘La Fiscalía exculpa a Interior de las muertes en Melilla y pide expedientar a los agentes que apedrearon a migrantes’, 23 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3FTJ2x6.

[84] La Vanguardia, ‘Más de 150 organizaciones denuncian el archivo de la investigación sobre la tragedia porque “deja impunes” hechos muy graves’, 24 December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3G0O1fI.

[85] Huffington Post, ‘HRW denuncia: las devoluciones en caliente en España contribuyeron a la muerte de migrantes’, 12 January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3ZwrJv8

[86] El Faro de Melilla, ‘La ministra de Justicia explica al Parlamento Europeo que la tragedia del 24J se cerró tras una profunda investigación’, 12 January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3GN11WN .

[87] Organic Law 4/2015 of 30 March 2015 on the protection of citizen security.

[88] UNHCR Spain, ‘Enmienda a Ley de Extranjería vincula gestión fronteriza y respeto de obligaciones internacionales’, 13 March 2015, available in Spanish at: http://bit.ly/1oEUcMD. See also ECRE, ‘Spain: New law giving legal cover to pushbacks in Ceuta and Melilla threats the right to asylum – Op-Ed by Estrella Galán, CEAR’, 27 March 2015, available at: http://bit.ly/1FRab0K.

[89]  Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, Third party intervention in N.D. v. Spain and N.T. v. Spain, 9 November 2015, available at: http://bit.ly/1oN9Vdk

[90] Eurostat; migr_eirfs.

[91]  ECtHR, N.D. and N.T. v. Spain, Application Nos 8675/15 and 8697/15, Judgment of 3 October 2017. 

[92] ECtHR, Grand Chamber, Case of N.D. and N.T. v. Spain, Applications nos. 8675/15 and 8697/15’, 13 February 2020, available at: https://cutt.ly/NrB68Fx.

[93] See EDAL summary at:  https://bit.ly/39fa7bV. For an analysis, see also Stavros Papageorgopoulos, N.D. and N.T. v. Spain: do hot returns require cold decision-making?, 28 February 2020, available at: https://bit.ly/33JWK25

[94]   Ibid.

[95] Ibid.

[96]   Atresmedia, ‘La Unión Progresista de Fiscales tilda de “brutal retroceso” el fallo del Tribunal Europeo que avala las devoluciones en caliente’, 15 February 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3dmLywW.

[97] Servicio Jesuita a Migrantes, ‘Nota de prensa Sentencia TEDH: Una sentencia dolorosa para demandantes y sociedad civil, pero que no legitima las devoluciones sumarias’, 14 February 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/crNqKam.

[98] Netflix, ‘The Gourougou Trial’, November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3FqKoAr.

[99] Tribunal Constitucional, Recurso de inconstitucionalidad STC 2015-2896, 19 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/VhYgIhu; Tribunal Constitucional, NOTA INFORMATIVA Nº 108/2020. El Pleno del TC avala la constitucionalidad de la ley de protección de la seguridad ciudadana de 2015 salvo las grabaciones “no autorizadas” a la policía, 19 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/EhYgLWZ.

[100] El Salto Diario, ‘El Constitucional desautoriza las devoluciones en caliente que realiza el Ministerio de Interior, 20 November 2020’, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/ShYjIih.

[101] Committee on the Rights of the Child, Views adopted by the Committee under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on a communications procedure, concerning communication No. 4/2016 – CRC/C/80/D/4/2016, 12 February 2019, available at: https://bit.ly/2TJ9Euf.

[102] El Correo, ‘El Supremo confirma el archivo de la causa sobre la tragedia de El Tarajal’, 2 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3BQrJNc.

[103] Dutch Council for Refugees, ‘Working together against pushbacks in Spain’, 19 May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3A8GTw7.

[104] El Diario, ‘Un juzgado de Ceuta ordena al Gobierno retornar a España a los menores devueltos a Marruecos en agosto’, 17 February 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/41puQ8S.

[105] El Faro de Ceuta, ‘España y Marruecos frenan un nuevo ‘salto a la valla’ en Ceuta y devuelven en caliente, al menos, a un joven subsahariano’, 13 April 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3CnhnRG; El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Organizaciones de Derechos Humanos denuncian la devolución en caliente de un joven subsahariano en la valla de Ceuta’, 13 April 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3wTyf1b; El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Devueltos a Marruecos unos 30 jóvenes migrantes que llegaron a nado a Ceuta el domingo’, 27 April 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3AkcERg.

[106] El País, ‘Interior devuelve a Marruecos a miles de migrantes sin aclarar el procedimiento’, 19 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3oARJ74.

[107] El Salto Diario, ‘Las organizaciones de DD HH denuncian que el Gobierno está incumpliendo la ley con las expulsiones colectivas de Ceuta’, 19 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3nmUiKq; Al Jazeera, ‘As migrants continue to reach Ceuta, Spanish pushback hardens’, 19 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3DaSVU1; RTVE, ‘Las ONG piden acabar con las devoluciones en caliente de menores en Ceuta y recuerdan que son ilegales’, 19 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3DiSTcF; Asociación Pro derechos Humanos de Anadalucía – APDHA, ‘APDHA exige el cese de las vulneraciones de derechos humanos contra las personas migrantes en Ceuta’, 19 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/31lwqyk

[108] Stick Noticias, ‘ONG denuncian la devolución de menores, la falta de asistencia letrada y la persecución de migrantes en Ceuta’, 21 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/31dN5UZ.

[109] Cadena Ser, ‘Interior ordena la devolución a sus países de origen a los menores migrantes que cruzaron a Ceuta en mayo’, 13 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3GXhSoh.

[110] Público, ‘La Fiscalía denuncia a la delegada del Gobierno y a la vicepresidenta de Ceuta por las expulsiones de menores marroquíes’, 10 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3VLzlYp

[111] El Pueblo de Ceuta, ‘El senegalés que abrazó a la voluntaria de Cruz Roja lleva a España ante Estrasburgo por su devolución’, 14 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QCUukM

[112] El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Dos entidades piden ejercer la acusación popular contra Mateos y Deu, 8 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3SIqKEL.  

[113] El Foro de Ceuta, ‘La Red Española de Inmigración admitida como acusación popular en la denuncia por la devolución de menores’, 22 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3dVdc92.

[114] Público, ‘El Gobierno ordenó las devoluciones ilegales de niños marroquíes pese a la advertencia de la jefa de menores de Ceuta’, 24 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3hae0cf.

[115] Público, ‘Cesan a la delegada del Gobierno en Ceuta, imputada por las devoluciones ilegales de menores marroquíes’, 31 October 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3XJdq5o

[116] El País, ‘El masivo salto de migrantes en la valla fronteriza de Melilla, en imágenes’, 24 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QgDMHU; ECRE, ‘Atlantic Route and Spain: Deadly Tragedy at Melilla Border Causes Local Protests and International Outcry – More Deaths on the Atlantic’, Weekly Bulletin, 8 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3A9951S; Melting Pot, ‘Almeno 27 migranti muoiono in Marocco nel tentativo di superare le barriere verso Melilla’, 25 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3bNzgBW.  

[117] Amnistía Internacional, ‘Amnistía Internacional expresa gran preocupación por los graves hechos ocurridos hoy en Melilla y en la frontera entre Marruecos y España, y pide una investigación independiente y exhaustiva’, 24 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3pb2D41; Amnistía Internacional, ‘Carta al presidente Sánchez por las ocho violaciones de derechos humanos cometidas en la valla de Melilla y la frontera marroquí’, 29 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QFMeAt.

[118] Público, ‘Los refugiados devueltos en caliente desde Melilla: “Los españoles nos pegaban de un lado y los marroquíes del otro”’, 4 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3SKzOJt; El País, ‘Immigration to Europe: Beni Mellal, Morocco’s city of exile for migrants pushed back from Europe’s borders’, 2 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3PvpsdH.

[119] Público, ‘Denuncian devoluciones en caliente en las islas españolas de Chafarinas’, 27 January 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3IVKHCC.

[120] El Faro de Melilla, ‘El Defensor del Pueblo responde sobre la devolución de inmigrantes a Marruecos tras llegar a Chafarinas’, 5 September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3FNHkPn.

[121] El País, ‘Mauritania recibe un tercio de los vuelos de expulsión de inmigrantes desde España’, 1 July 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/DhYbXnm.

[122] El Diario, ‘Devoluciones exprés de Canarias a Mauritania: Interior ha expulsado a malienses que declararon su intención de pedir asilo’, 31 January 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/ir7o2KQ.

[123] El País, ‘Uno de los deportados por España a Mauritania: “Después de tres días sin comer, nos abandonaron en Malí”’, 7 February 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2QJzk7M.

[124] Europapress, ‘SJM denuncia que España repatría a personas malienses a Mauritania, “devoluciones indirectas” a un país en conflicto’, 24 January 2020, available at: https://cutt.ly/wtqES5g; La Provincia, ‘Las devoluciones indirectas de migrantes a Mali contravienen directrices de la ONU’, 3 February 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/3tqW6Ew.

[125] El Diario, ‘Grupos semanales de 20 migrantes y sin derecho a un segundo abogado, así son las deportaciones de Canarias al Sáhara’, 23 April 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3IT7xvX.

[126] Cope, ‘Argelia se suma a Marruecos y Mauritania y ya empieza a aceptar inmigrantes retornados desde España’, 2 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/phYcxoL.

[127] Público, ‘Interior retoma las deportaciones de migrantes argelinos desde los CIE’, 2 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2XXlhP7.

[128] El País, ‘Interior incrementa la deportación de los marroquíes llegados a Canarias’, 7 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2LYQ9w4; El Español, ‘Rabat acepta la devolución de migrantes de Canarias en la negociación con la UE para lograr más visados’, 3 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2NfY7Sd

[129] El Confidencial, ‘España alcanza un acuerdo con Senegal para repatriar a los migrantes irregulares’, 22 November 2020, available at: https://bit.ly/3IORSMt; El Salto Diario, ‘El plan de España en Senegal: extractivismo para empobrecer pero migración criminalizada’, 10 April 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/32IZ2CC.

[130] Público, ‘España retomará los vuelos de deportaciones de migrantes a Senegal’, 5 February 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/37mAPkJ.

[131] El País, ‘La ministra de Exteriores cierra en Senegal un acuerdo para reactivar las repatriaciones’, 22 November 2020, available at: https://bit.ly/2Zvt87p.

[132] Diario de Avisos, ‘Un macro vuelo recoge hoy en las Islas a decenas de senegaleses para deportarlos’, 10 March 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3G8Gb1C; El Día, ‘Interior mantiene las deportaciones a Senegal pese a las revueltas en el país’, 10 March 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3HkiuVq; Canarias7, ‘Interior suspende por segunda vez el vuelo de repatriación a Senegal, 10 March 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3KR9k53.

[133] El País, ‘Senegal se resiste a garantizar los vuelos de repatriación de migrantes desde España’, 9 April 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3ujCP9T.

[134] Voz Populi, ‘El Gobierno pagará hasta diez millones a las aerolíneas por devolver inmigrantes a sus países de origen’, 31 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/1jhBd3d.

[135] El País, ‘Interior triplica las subvenciones a países africanos para contener la inmigración irregular’, 29 June 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2ZvZYoL.

[136] El Diario, ‘El Gobierno activa un plan para “evitar la salida de pateras” a Canarias que incluye el envío de más aviones y buques a los países de tránsito,’ 13 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/395jHS1; El Día, ‘Repatriaciones y más vigilancia, el plan del Estado ante la inmigración, 14 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/35ZGblf; Canarias7, ‘El Gobierno deportará a inmigrantes sin protección internacional y no los derivará a la península’, 13 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2LPqWV9.

[137] Público, ‘España y Senegal negocian para retomar las deportaciones de migrantes’, 19 September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3WfP4z1.

[138] El Confidencial Digital, ‘Interior proporcionará material policial a Gambia para frenar la inmigración irregular’, 15 September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3kBTJgV.

[139] European Migration Network (EMN), ‘Bilateral Readmission Agreements’, September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3ZtO37o.

[140] Ministry of Interior, ‘Immigración Irregular 2022. Datos acumulados del 1 de enero al 31 de diciembre’, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3iNv1tp.

[141] Ministry of Interior, ‘Immigración Irregular 2022. Datos acumulados del 1 de enero al 31 de diciembre’, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3iNv1tp.

[142] Caminando Fronteras, ‘Monitoring the Right to Life – Year 2022, January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3HktowO.

[143] Caminando Fronteras, ‘Informe víctimas de la necro frontera 2018-2022, diciembre 2022’, December 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3WqG0GV.

[144] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía, ‘Balance Migratorio Frontera Sur 2022’, 7 February 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3Ze5oSK

[145] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), ‘Más de un centenar de organizaciones proponen medidas para el trato digno a las personas migrantes muertas y desaparecidas en el mar y sus familias’, 2 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3VwJGHP; Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), ‘APDHA publica un documento informativo para las familias de personas desaparecidas en la frontera sur’, 28 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3JnFIOf

[146] El Español, ‘El negocio criminal de las pateras en España: entre 4.000 y 7.500€ por migrante para dormir en cuevas, 6 August 21, available at: https://bit.ly/3KleBBs.

[147] El Faro de Ceuta, ‘El 86% de los puertos españoles ponen trabas a la prensa durante la llegada de migrantes’, 15 March 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3nJmkzz.

[148] Entre Fronteras, Sindicato de Periodistas de Andalucía (SPA), ‘Informe periodismo y migraciones la cobertura periodística sobre los procesos migratorios en los puertos españoles durante el estado de alarma’, March 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3gdkZwJ.

[149] Consejo General de la Abogacía Española, Fundación Abogacía Española, ‘Asistencia jurídica en llegadas marítimas. Guía práctica para la abogacía’, August 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3GLQFoR.

[150] Nius Diario, ‘Cruz Roja implanta un proyecto de identificación de personas desaparecidas en ruta migratoria por vía marítima’, 29 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QkUYvl; El Diario, ‘Cruz Roja identifica a más de 100 personas desaparecidas en la ruta migratoria hacia Canarias’, 29 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3KQK4vV.   

[151] Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Informe anual 2022 – Volumen I’, March 2023, p. 171, available at: https://bit.ly/42x1Ehf.

[152] Programa Ödos, see: https://programaodos.org/.

[153] Programa Ödos, ‘Mujeres y niñez africana en movilidad. La llegada a España a través del Mediterráneo’, June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/40bMJY7.

[154] ECRE, ‘Atlantic Route and Spain: Push for Inclusion of Irregular Migration as Threat to NATO, Old Routes Remain Deadly and New Deadly Routes Emerge Amid Tensions Over Western Sahara’, 24 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3o3s9Lm.

[155] Chiara Zanelli, Melting Pot, Perché la rotta Atlantica nel corso del 2020 si è “riaperta”?, 26 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/wjhVPi5.

[156] Euro News, ‘El cambio de posición de España respecto al Sáhara provoca la reacción de Argelia’, 20 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3K1qzRF.

[157] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía, ‘Balance Migratorio 2022: APDHA alerta de la peligrosidad de las rutas con la segunda cifra más alta de muertes de la historia en 2022’, 7 February 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/40xIIgl.

[158]  Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Informe anual 2022 – Volumen I’, March 2023, p. 163, available at: https://bit.ly/42x1Ehf.

[159] Sir[a], see: https://www.psicosocial.net/sira/.   

[160] Sir[a], ‘Laberintos de Tortura. Violencias e impactos del tránsito migratorio desde África hasta España’, October 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3zmgwlf

[161] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía, ‘Derechos Humanos en la Frontera Sur 2023 – 35 años de vidas sin rastro’, 20 March 2023, p. 75, available at: https://bit.ly/3K58GCD.

[162] Cadena Ser, ‘La mayoría de los inmigrantes que llegan a Canarias en las últimas semanas no reciben asistencia jurídica’, 11 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/Eh1nRtk.

[163] Irídia, see: https://iridia.cat/es/.

[164] Irídia, ‘Nuevas vulneraciones de derechos humanos a las personas migrantes en Canarias, May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Zf2cW7.

[165] EASO, ‘EASO support to Spain becomes fully operational’, 10 March 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3GpBGzC.

[166] EUAA, ‘Operating Plan 2022-2023 agreed by the European Asylum Support Office and Spain’, 14 December 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3wVy5aD.

[167] EUAA, Operational Plan 2022-2023 agreed by the European Union Agency for Asylum and Spain, May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3F92GWz.

[168] EUAA personnel numbers do not include deployed interpreters by the EUAA in support of asylum and reception activities.

[169] Information provided by the EUAA, 28 February 2023. In the figures above, the same persons may have been included under different profiles, if a change of profile took place in the course of 2022.

[170] El Periódico de Canarias, ‘Gobierno y abogados inician un proyecto de orientación jurídica para personas presas, refugiadas y migrantes’, 1 August 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/35CwUSL.

[171] Gobierno de Canarias, ‘El Gobierno gasta 25 millones al año en mantener un buen servicio de asistencia jurídica gratuita en Canarias’, 4 May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3K5bNdN.

[172] Information provided by the IOM on 4 March 2022.

[173] Canarias7, ‘Los acuerdos con Marruecos inciden en el descenso de la inmigración en Canarias’, 13 January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3n6konh.

[174] CEAR, ‘Refugiados y migrantes en España: Los muros invisibles tras la frontera sur’, December 2017, 8.

[175] Cruz Roja Española, see: https://www2.cruzroja.es/.

[176] Ministerio de Transportes, Movilidad y Agenda Urbana, ‘El Gobierno consolida el sistema de respuesta ante accidentes en la mar con el nuevo Plan de Seguridad y Salvamento Marítimo 2021-2024’, 7 December 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/34yvUOW.

[177] Contrainformacion, Helena Maleno, acusada de las muertes de personas migrantes por alertar de una patera en peligro, 2 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/ChLtxcN.

[178] El Diario, ‘Marruecos archiva la causa contra la activista española Helena Maleno por sus llamadas a Salvamento Marítimo’, 11 March 2019, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/2eZTPKO.

[179] Cadena Ser, ‘La defensora de derechos humanos Helena Maleno, expulsada de Marruecos’, 12 April 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/2Z02lDO.

[180] El Salto Diario, ‘Más de 700 organizaciones y 10.000 personas exigen a Pedro Sánchez protección para Helena Maleno’, 20 April 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3Crs9WO.

[181] Caminando Fronteras, ‘La Organización Mundial contra la Tortura señala a España y Marruecos por criminalizar a Helena Maleno’, 15 November 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3pOe2b5.

[182] Europapress, Barcelona se personará en el juicio en Italia contra Salvini por el bloqueo del Open Arms, 27 January 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3r3CUJB.

[183] La Vanguardia, ‘Arranca el juicio contra Salvini por bloquear el desembarco del Open Arms’, 23 October 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/34BeKR2.

[184] La Notizia, ‘Processo Open Arms, nuova udienza a Palermo per Salvini. Il vicepremier: “Rischio 15 anni di carcere”’, 13 January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3ym0o2o; Il Sicilia, ‘Salvini a palermo per il processo Open Arms, incontrerà i dirigenti del partito’, 1 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3ztnu2z.

[185] Diario Siglo XXI, ‘Vox pide investigar ONG que “colaboran” en tráfico de migrantes y Marlaska responde: “Si tiene datos formalice denuncia”’, 20 September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3BhgpIL

[186] Defensor del Pueblo,’El Defensor del Pueblo recomienda al Ministerio del Interior modificar las instrucciones sobre polizones extranjeros para proteger a posibles solicitantes de asilo’, 28 February 2019, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/EeZQGsA.

[187] Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Polizones extranjeros. Tratamiento de solicitudes de asilo’, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3L2Cpue.

[188] Público, ‘Interior cambia de criterio y se niega a mejorar la protección de los polizones que piden asilo en España’, 21.4.22, available at: https://bit.ly/3IYVDkn.

[189] La Razón, ‘Marruecos evitó la llegada a España de 15.000 inmigrantes durante los tres primeros meses del año’, 7 May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3BSJtYq.   

[190] Atalayar, ‘El acuerdo entre España y Marruecos hace descender la inmigración irregular en un 26%’, 4 January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3GSnwe5; Público, ‘La nueva relación con Marruecos atenúa la migración hacia Canarias’, 3 September 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3kA7ooI.

[191] El Español, ‘Marruecos cierra el paso de migrantes al sur de España: así es la nueva y peligrosa ruta a Canarias’, 16 August 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/VhLueuB.

[192] Atalayea, ‘España y Marruecos refuerzan su alianza estratégica en tiempos de pandemia’, 16 July 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/qhLpsq2.

[193] Atalayar, ‘Marruecos y España: causas de las recientes fricciones’, 28 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3axCRjU; Atalayar, ‘La embajadora de Marruecos rebaja la tensión y asegura a España que no varía la postura sobre Ceuta y Melilla’, 23 December 2020, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3dqMgvt.

[194] El Confidencial Digital, ‘Interior recibe el aval para no informar sobre las ayudas a Marruecos contra la inmigración irregular’, 22 January 2021, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/3bruWEi

[195] El Faro de Melilla, ‘España entregará 130 vehículos a Marruecos para el control fronterizo y de inmigración’, 11 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/rhxt3Oc.

[196]  ECSaharaui, ‘El Gobierno de Pedro Sánchez regala a Marruecos otros 31 millones de euros en vehículos 4×4’, 5 May 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/YhLac11; El Independiente, ‘España destina a Marruecos 86,8 millones en dos años para financiar el ‘tapón’ de la inmigración ilegal’, 19 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3Ks3A1c; Europa Press, ‘España ha dado más de 90 millones en ayudas a Marruecos en tres años para controlar la inmigración ilegal’, 19 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3nHtkNB

[197] Info Libre, ‘El Gobierno aprueba la entrega de 30 millones para que la policía marroquí corte el paso a los migrantes’, 17 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/33TPHYN.

[198] La Moncloa, ‘XII reunión de alto nivel Marruecos-España. 1-2 febrero 2023. Declaración conjunta’, February 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3L2NOfZ.

[199] ECSaharaui, ‘Covid-19 cambia la ruta de la inmigración ilegal procedente de Marruecos; del estrecho de Gibraltar a Gran Canarias’, 19 July 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/nhLoOE1.

[200] El País, España y Frontex negocian una operación para cerrar la ruta migratoria canaria, 7 November 2020, available at: https://cutt.ly/lhLemcp

[201] El País, ‘Frontex renueva un año más sus operaciones en España’, 29 January 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3LbMQvy.

[202] Cadena Ser, ‘Arranca la Operación Minerva ’22 en los puertos de Algeciras y Tarifa’, 17 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3vQFDuW; El Mundo, ‘Interior destina más policías de plantilla para la Frontera del Tarajal en Ceuta’, 17 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3dbIXu5

[203] Français Fois, ‘Le Maroc, nouvelle voie migratoire pour les Soudanais en route vers l’Europe’, 29 July 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3C6BHu9

[204] El Diario, ‘Sánchez apoya la propuesta de Marruecos para la autonomía del Sáhara’, 18 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3DkgbAl; Melting Pot, ‘La Spagna approva il piano di autonomia marocchino nel Sahara Occidentale’, 2 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3deloRg.

[205] Asociaicón Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía (APDHA), ‘APDHA califica de “miserable” el cambio de posición del Gobierno respecto al Sáhara’, 21 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3DfX4aE.

[206] El Diario, ‘Concentraciones en apoyo al Sáhara Libre: “Han creído que podrían imponer su voluntad sobre un pueblo soberano”’, 24 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/35fHO0W; RTVE, ‘Unas 2.000 personas se manifiestan frente a Exteriores contra el giro del Gobierno: “Sánchez, el Sáhara no se vende”’, 26 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3iEQAZy.

[207] Cadena Ser, ‘Argelia suspende el Tratado de Amistad y Cooperación con España tras el “injustificable” giro de su postura en el conflicto del Sáhara’, 9 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3QeYcRS.

[208] Boletín Oficial del Estado (BOE), ‘Convenio entre el Reino de España y el Reino de Marruecos sobre cooperación en materia de seguridad y de lucha contra la delincuencia, hecho en Rabat el 13 de febrero de 2019’, 7 April 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3BMrxi2; La Vanguardia, ‘El BOE publica un acuerdo España-Marruecos en seguridad coincidiendo con el viaje de Sánchez a Rabat’, 7 April 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3P40ZvG.

[209] El Faro de Ceuta, ‘Las ONG creen que el acuerdo España-Marruecos vincula delincuencia e inmigración irregular’, 29 April 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3A6ONG3; El Pueblo de Ceuta, ‘España y Marruecos renuevan su cooperación en materia de seguridad’, 29 April 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3A5a5nF; Andalucía Acoge, ‘España y Marruecos renuevan su cooperación en materia de seguridad vinculando delincuencia organizada e inmigración “irregular”’, 28 April 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3zI3MoG.

[210] News EsEuro, ‘Inmigración ilegal: La UE prevé destinar más de 500 millones de euros a Marruecos (Medios españoles)’, 15 August 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3A1CxW6.

[211] Europa press, ‘España destina 30 millones de euros a Marruecos contra el tráfico de personas y gestión de flujos migratorios’, 18 October 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Fcs0eC.

[212] Voz Populi, ‘Indignación en la Guardia Civil por los 120M de Sánchez a Marruecos: “Pedimos los mismos medios”’, 13 January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3ZZMOyn; Vox Populi, ‘Sánchez ha dado al menos 120 millones a Marruecos a fondo perdido solo en gestión de fronteras’, 12 January 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3JeXR0H.  

[213] El País, ‘El Gobierno deniega el asilo a rescatados por el ‘Aquarius’’, 28 September 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/FtT2CT3.

[214] El País, ‘España deniega el 94% de las solicitudes de asilo del ‘Aquarius’’, 13 March 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/ttUJdTn.

[215] La Vanguardia, ‘Siete denegaciones de asilo a refugiados del ‘Open Arms’’, 27 October 2020, available at: https://bit.ly/2OU0k6E.

[216] Las Provincias, El Gobierno se olvida del Aquarius, 15 November 2020, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/khMwBrt.

[217]  Las Provincias, ‘El fiasco del Aquarius’, 21 May 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/33NYRWY.

[218] Cadena Ser, ‘Cuatro años después los migrantes de la flotilla del ‘Aquarius’ se sienten abandonados’, 15 June 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Q0GYqV.

[219] Ibid, 10.

[220] El País, ‘España expulsa 30 inmigrantes por día desde 2013’, 7 January 2019, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2QvlvqC.

[221]  Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Informe anual 2022 – Volumen I ‘, March 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3FQgoxY, 169.

[222]  Irídia, ‘Nuevas vulneraciones de derechos humanos a las personas migrantes en Canarias, May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Zf2cW7.

[223]  Consejo General Abogacía Española, Fundación Abogacía Española, ‘Asistencia jurídica en llegadas marítimas Guía práctica para la abogacía’, August 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3hWAyda.

[224]  Europapress, ‘Un total de 22.082 personas han sido atendidas a pie de playa en lo que va de 2018, casi la cifra total de 2017’, 30 July 2018, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2RNdsKL; El Periódico, ‘La inusual llegada de pateras a Málaga obliga a buscar soluciones de emergencia’, 13 November 2018, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2Rygwed.

[225]  El Diario, ‘El nuevo centro de migrantes del puerto de Málaga dedica 2,3 m² por persona, la mitad que un calabozo para detenidos’, 28 July 2019, available in Spanish at: https://cutt.ly/AeLTIAg.

[226] La Opinión de Murcia, ‘El CATE provisional de Cartagena abrió sin luz ni Internet y carece de zona de desembarco’, 9 October 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/41WDRqE; La Verdad, ‘La apertura del CATE de Cartagena depende ahora de una prórroga sobre el suelo’, 4 February 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3sr4uUK.

[227] Andalucía Información, ‘El Nuevo CATE de Motril entrará en funcionamiento en 2022, según Gobierno’, 23 September 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3tfkxEz.

[228] Ideal, ‘Las obras del centro de inmigrantes de Motril terminan en octubre después de tres años de polémica y retrasos’, 4 October 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3yocpEs.

[229] APDHA, Derechos Humanos en la Frontera Sur 2021, March 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3poRtJn, 60.

[230] Irídia, ‘Nuevas vulneraciones de derechos humanos a las personas migrantes en Canarias, May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Zf2cW7.

[231] Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Infome anual – Volumen I – Anexo A Informe Completo del Mecanismo Nacional Dd Prevención (MNP), March 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3ZXvRmP

[232] Europapress, ‘El centro para la acogida temporal de migrantes en Mérida atiende a 196 personas en su primera semana en servicio’, 3 August 2018, available in Spanish at: https://bit.ly/2RZQosk.

[233] APDHA, Derechos Humanos en la Frontera Sur 2019, February 2019, 36-37.

[234] CEAR, ‘Libro blanco del sistema de protección internacional en España una propuesta desde la experiencia de CEAR’, February 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3Kyxm4b, 207.

[235] Ministerio de Inclusión, Seguridad Social y Migraciones, ‘Resolución de 14 de noviembre de 2022, de la Dirección General de Atención Humanitaria e Inclusión Social de la Inmigración, por la que se establece la planificación de prestaciones, actuaciones y servicios que deben atenderse dentro del programa de atención humanitaria mediante acción concertada para los ejercicios 2023-2026’, 14 November 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3zgGrus.

[236] Ministerio del Interior, ‘Interior obtiene 13,5 millones de euros de la UE para el refuerzo de las capacidades de atención policial a los migrantes’, 16 April 2021, available at: https://bit.ly/3vQ9Zib.

[237] Defensor del Pueblo, ‘Informe anual 2022 – Volumen I ‘, March 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3FQgoxY, 170.

[238] La Opinión de Muercia, ‘El CATE provisional de Cartagena abrió sin luz ni Internet y carece de zona de desembarco, 9 October 22, available at: https://bit.ly/42EH5PW.

[239] Europa Sur, ‘El Defensor del Pueblo urge a crear un protocolo para los CIE y CATE, 13.9.22, available at: https://bit.ly/3JJZwtB.

[240] Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucía, ‘Mujeres y frontera sur. Derechos humanos en la frontera sur 2022’, 7 March 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3vX7IBC.

[241] El Derecho, ‘Aprobado el Programa Nacional de Reasentamiento de Refugiados en España’, 22 February 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3Zfg3fo.

[242] Ministerio de Inclusión, Seguirdad Social y Migraciones, ‘Inclusión recibe en Barajas a 201 refugiados sirios procedentes de Líbano en el marco del Programa Nacional de Reasentamiento’, 6 May 2022, available at: https://bit.ly/3BIOqCV.

[243] Information provided by UNHCR in March 2023.

[244] La Moncloa, ‘Referencia del Consejo de Ministros’, 21 February 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3YXn1pF.

[245] IOM Spain, ‘OIM y ACNUR dan la bienvenida al reasentamiento acelerado de refugiados sirios de Turquía en España tras el terremoto’, 5 March 2023, available at: https://bit.ly/3yiAzQV.

Table of contents

  • Statistics
  • Overview of the legal framework
  • Overview of the main changes since the previous report update
  • Asylum Procedure
  • Reception Conditions
  • Detention of Asylum Seekers
  • Content of International Protection
  • ANNEX I – Transposition of the CEAS in national legislation