Syria
Refugees arriving directly from Syria are subject to a group-based, prima facie-type Temporary Protection regime in Türkiye. The temporary protection regime currently in place covers Syrian nationals and stateless Palestinians originating from Syria. However, this policy has changed since 6 June 2022. (See Reception Conditions). Those coming through a third country, however, are excluded from the temporary protection regime. Although they should be allowed to make an international protection application under the LFIP, in practice they are not allowed to apply and are only granted a short-term visa and then a short-term residence permit. In the case of a Syrian who had previously resided in Türkiye but was forced to leave due to the expiration of his residence permit, he entered Türkiye from Kuwait and applied for temporary protection. His application to PDMM was denied. His attorney successfully appealed this ruling and won the case. PDMM continues to resist issuing the ID to the applicant.[1]
In another case of a Syrian national[2], the applicant and their children arrived in Türkiye via Lebanon in January 2021 to reunite with the spouse, who had been living in Istanbul with a temporary protection identity and work permit. The application for temporary protection was denied on the grounds of entering from a third country. The court found this denial unlawful, as it violated the constitutional principle of family unity, and ruled that the application should have been evaluated under the appropriate legal provisions. The Istanbul 1st Administrative Court annulled the decision in 2023, ordering the defendant to cover the plaintiff’s legal expenses and allowing for an appeal within 30 days.
Iraq
Iraqis are generally granted short-term residence permits once they are in Türkiye. Even where they apply for international protection, they are usually encouraged to opt for a short-term residence permit.[3]
In 2022, according to Support to Life’s report, Yezidis coming to Türkiye from Iraq and living in Mardin and Batman faced severe problems in accessing international protection or short-term residency.[4]
Afghanistan
The barriers to access to the procedure following the takeover of registration of applicants for international protection by PMM (see Registration) have had particularly adverse effects on Afghan nationals.
This situation for Afghan refugees in Türkiye remained extremely difficult in 2023.[5] The significant number of arrivals from Afghanistan to Türkiye was one of the biggest issues. An extremely negative response was given to irregular crossings at the Iranian border, and the public perception that Afghan single men “do not need international protection” remained persistent in 2023[6] In contrast, a report prepared by the Migration and Social Cohesion Commission of the Turkish National Grand Assembly challenges the prevalent perception that the majority of Afghans are single men economic migrants. According to the report, a great numbering of Afghans entering Türkiye after August 2021 were ´secular and educated families´.[7]
A study from 2022 surveyed 774 Afghans in seven cities across Türkiye to understand their living conditions and mobility aspirations. Increasing prices in the country, expensive utility bills and having low income make it difficult for Afghans to afford food and housing.[8] It found that two-thirds of Afghans live in poverty and daily work is the main source of income. Nearly half of respondents strongly consider moving to another country, but only 16% have concrete plans to leave their current country. The survey found that almost a quarter of respondents consider it impossible to move to another country in their current situation, while more than one-third would like to permanently stay in Türkiye if the possibility existed. Despite experiences of discrimination, feelings of belonging increase with length of stay, and Afghans and Syrians are the most discriminated against nationalities in Türkiye. Low expectations for the future are expressed by two-thirds of new arrivals and almost half of those who had previously migrated or were born in Türkiye.[9]
A study[10] reveals that Afghans in Türkiye experience a degree of non-deportability due to the informal labor market’s demand for their work, despite increasing deportations publicised by state officials. Afghans endure long hours in dangerous jobs, often unpaid, and are tolerated in informal employment despite restrictions on inter-city travel. Recent deportations are politically motivated, exacerbated by economic issues and anti-refugee sentiment. Afghans face a precarious existence without structural protection or durable solutions. The Turkish state’s approach lacks formal protection, relying on problematic informal measures. Another study conducted in Ankara, Bursa, Malatya, Kayseri and Istanbul supports a similar argument that Afghan migrants have no legal protection and are thrown into despair by their employers’ mistreatment[11]. GAR Report[12] identified three mechanisms on irregularisation of Afghans, especially for the newly arriving young single males: (1) delaying applications by the PDMMs, (2) not providing detailed information about the registration, and (3) “default rejection”.
Afghan refugees in Türkiye face significant difficulties with registration and legal procedures. They lack awareness regarding relevant Turkish institutions and struggle to maintain bureaucratic relations, particularly unaccompanied minors. Many unregistered Afghan children live and work informally, without access to education. Afghan individuals avoid public institutions, making registration rates low. Obtaining power of attorney and necessary documents for legal cases is nearly impossible for Afghans. Afghan embassies cannot issue passports since August 2021. Inconsistent case law on Afghanistan persists despite the suspension of deportations. Some applicants have successfully appealed negative decisions due to persecution risks or insufficient research, while others have been denied protection based on economic reasons.[13] Afghan single males are the main group targeted by puschbacks to Iran[14].
The forced/voluntary returns of Afghans, after halting for a couple of months following the fall of Kabul, started in 2022, and continue in 2023.[15]
Ukraine
As a member state of the Council of Europe, Ukrainians seeking asylum in Türkiye can be granted refugee or subsidiary protection if specific conditions are met. If a Ukrainian does not meet the criteria for refugee status, they may be eligible for subsidiary protection, provided that their specific circumstances in Ukraine meet the necessary conditions for this status.
Since Russia declared war against Ukraine in February 2022, 145,000 Ukrainians reached Türkiye.[16] However, as of January 2023, the number of Ukrainians present in the country was 95,000, according to UNHCR.[17] 7,131 Ukrainians had applied for international protection as of February 2023.[18] As of June 2024, the numbers of Ukranian displaced people decreased to 38,725, including 3,230 who applied for international protection[19]. The majority of Ukrainians prefer to reside in metropolitan cities such as Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Antalya, Muğla, and Bursa because of the availability of temporary shelter services, Ukrainian diaspora in those cities and employment opportunities. Ukrainians of Meskhetian Turks, Crimean Tatar, and Gagarus Turk prefer to reside in Bursa, Kirklareli, and Eskişehir. As of June 2024, 35,505 Ukranians hold residence permit, including 23,734 short term residence permits, and 6,402 family residence permits[20]. There is a tendency not to apply for International Protection, rather preferring to stay in Türkiye with a residence permit, in order to be able to travel back to Ukraine or move to EU countries[21].
Once Ukrainians, at first 300 individuals, predominantly women and children, arrived in Türkiye via Bulgaria by buses, they were housed in dormitories in Edirne, Eskisehir, and Bursa. . When additional refugee groups arrived in Ankara, authorities did not know how to manage the number of arrivals of the Ukrainians’ applications for international protection. Approximately 200 guests stayed in a dormitory in Gölbaşı, Ankara they had been granted access to by an affluent Turkish businessman. Initially, it was for three months, but their stay was subsequently extended. Some Ukrainians were resettled in third countries, while others returned to Ukraine. The Ukrainian Cultural Centre in Ankara initiated a matching programme between newly arrived Ukrainians and Turkish families. Some women and children were housed in Reception and Accommodation Centre in Yozgat.[22] There were 551 Crimean Tatars and Meskhetian Turks among the Ukrainian citizens who came to Türkiye, who were placed in dormitories in Edirne and Kırklareli, with support from AFAD. [23] On 3 June 2022, a Presidential Decree granting 1000 households of Meskhetian Turks in need of protection for permanent residency (iskanli gocmen) entered into force.[24] Meskhetian Turks were placed in the Elazığ Temporary Accommodation Centre, the Red Crescent provide support, such as voucher cards. [25]
According to stakeholders, there were four categories of Ukrainians living in Türkiye: (1) Ukrainians holding short- or long-term residence permits (i.e. Ukrainians who had previously visited Türkiye, or having relatives in Türkiye); (2) applicants for international protection whose economic conditions were worse comparing to other groups and who had no contacts in Türkiye; (3) Ukrainians having a humanitarian visa, primarily women and children directly affected by war by losing their close relatives in the war and (4) Crimean Tatars and Meskhetian Turks having permanent residence (iskanli gocmen) in Türkiye.
After the initial 2 months, the registration and residence permit processes were accelerated significantly, and applicants gained access to health care and other services promptly. During this two-month gap period, the UNHCR provided assistance to individuals with special needs, such as those living with HIV or chronic diseases. All those holding the status of asylum applicants and have the right to access services; however, some Ukrainians with residence permits experienced difficulty gaining access to health care. As part of the deconcentration policy, certain neighborhoods, such as Istanbul and Antalya, were closed to registration. However, Ukrainians were benefitted from a more flexible approach in terms of registration to those closed cities, if thery have family members living there[26]. Ukrainians benefitted from social aid programmes such as ESSN and CCTV.[27] Some support initiatives already began by April 2022, including as one in the Kuşadası Municipality for Ukrainian women who fled their country to work online and earn money.[28] NGOs such as SGDD-ASAM provided online counselling in Russian and Ukrainians[29] and provided some sub-grants to Ukrainian-led organisations.
According to stakeholders, the identified needs, including basic requirements, of Ukrainians remained unmet, due to difficulties in gaining access to services, and the absence of legal documents among Ukrainian beneficiaries. Reasons such as language barrier, insufficient financial resources, and difficulties in accessing job opportunities, lack of knowledge of legal regulations, and lack of information about rights, services, and obligations among individuals have contributed to the continuation of these problems.[30] However, due to the strong social networks that many of them have in Türkiye, they often do not approach to NGOs and municipalities to access social aid, which is interpreted by the stakeholders that their initial needs are met.[31]
Other nationalities
In 2023, there was a policy change regarding issuing residence permits, a number of short-term residence permits applications were been denied[32]. In case of the need for protection after their residence permits were not prolonged, they have faced difficulties accessing to the international protection application. Applicants whose requests for residence permits were denied continued to reside in Türkiye despite the illegality of their stay, as submitting a lawsuit has no suspensive effect, unlike deportation cases.[33] Migrants from Africa who held residence permit previously face difficulties to renew their permits, consequently they found themselves as undocumented migrants who cannot access basic rights and services due to the fear of deportation[34].
Russian single young men who do not want to enlist in the military, anti-war activists, political opponents and middle-class professionals pessimistic about their economic prospects at home in the aftermath the sanctions appeared to be particularly likely to migrate to Türkiye[35]. It is estimated that around 200,000 Russians moved abroad due to the political and economic consequences of the war and that around 3,000 Russians had already moved to Türkiye before the start of war at the beginning of February 2022[36].The Ark is one of several small-scale NGOs in Türkiye that assist Russians seeking refuge in Türkiye.
Russians can stay in Türkiye for up to three months without a visa, but those who want to stay longer must apply for resident permits. Russians ranked first in long-term residency permits with 146,063 and third in family permits with 7,732 as of 25 May 2023. As of June 2024, they are ranked second in the residency permit holders in Türkiye, with 95,409 and second in family permits with 13,880. Overall, the number of residence pemits holder Russians decreased dramatically in Türkiye. The policy of not renewing residence permits is also very closely related to the economic crisis, it is a strategy aimed entirely at relieving the real estate market, this is one of the reasons why Russians had to leave in large numbers, and then there was a decrease in real estate prices, especially in cities such as Antalya[37].
[1] Information provided by a stakeholder, May 2023.
[2] İstanbul İdare Mahkemesi, Karar no 2023/3091.
[3] Information provided by a stakeholder, March 2019 & Information provided by a stakeholder, March 2024.
[4] Hayata Destek, ‘Türkiye’ye Yeni Gelen Ezidilerin Kayit Sorunu’ 2022, available in Turkish here.
[5] ICMPD, ‘Migration Outlook 2022 Western Balkans & Turkey Nine migration issues to look out for in 2022’, 2022, available here. & Information provided by stakeholders, March – April 2024.
[6] Information provided by several stakeholders, May-June 2023 and March – April 2024.
[7] DW, ‘Meclis’ten göç raporu: Cezalar yetersiz’, 10 June 2022, available in Turkish here.
[8] Can Eminoğlu, ‘Strategizing to Survive in Liminal Life: Ghost-Like Agency Of Afghan Refugees In Turkey’, July 2022, available here.
[9] R. Rischke & Z. Yanaşmayan – DeZim Institut, Die prekäre Situation von Afghan*innen in der Türkei, August 2022.
[10] Sibel Karadağ, Deniz Ş Sert, (Non-)deport to Discipline: The Daily Life of Afghans in Turkey, Journal of Refugee Studies, Volume 36, Issue 3, September 2023, Pages 449–466, available here.
[11] Jurat, A. Y. (2022). The tragedy of irregular migration: the case of Afghans in Turkey. Central Asian Survey, 42(2), 274–292. Available here.
[12] GAR, “(Non-)reception of the Afghans in Turkey”, GAR Report No. 9, October 2023
[13] Information provided by various stakeholders, May- June 2023 & Information provided by stakeholders, March- April 2024.
[14] Information provided by stakeholders, March- April 2024.
[15] Information provided by a stakeholder, May 2022.
[16] Euronews, ‘BM: Ukrayna’da savaştan kaçan mültecilerin sayısı 10 milyonu geçti’, 2 August 2022, available here
[17] UNHCR, ‘Ukraine Refugee Situation’, last updated July 2023, available here.
[18] UNHCR, ‘Türkiye Fact Sheet’, February 2023, available https://bit.ly/3KjjLjh;here PMM, ‘Uluslararasi Koruma’, 2022, available in Turkish here.
[19] UNHCR, Ukraine Refugee Situation, available here.
[20] PMM, Statistics, last updated June 2024, available here.
[21] Information provided by stakeholders, March- April 2024.
[22] Information provided by a stakeholder, March 2023.
[23] Anadolu Ajansi, ‘Humanitarian Aid sent from Türkiye to Ukraine’, 7 March 2022 available here
[24] Resmî Gazete, CUMHURBAŞKANI KARARI, 3 June 2022, Available in Turkish here
[25] Kızılay, Geçici Barınma Merkezi’ne Yerleştirilen Ahıska Türklerine Kızılaykart Desteği, 26.09.2022, available here.
[26] Information provided by a stakeholder, March 2024.
[27] Information provided by a stakeholder, March 2023.
[28] Bizimizmir, ‘kusadasi ukraynali savas magduru kadinlara kusadasi istasyon topluluk merkezi ni acti’ last accessed 13 July 2023, available in Turkish here.
[29] SGDD, ASAM, ‘Türkiye’deki Hassas Durumdaki Göçmenlere Hukuki Destek ve Hizmet Sağlanması Projesi’, last accessed 13 July 2023, available here.
[30] ASAM, Activity Report On Humanitarian Assistance Provided Towards Ukrainians In Türkiye, 3 August 2022.
[31] Information provided by stakeholders, March – April 2024.
[32] Information provided by stakeholders, March – April 2024.
[33] Information provided by a stakeholder, April 2023.
[34] Information provided by a stakeholder, March 2024.
[35] Sebnem Turhan, ‘In Istanbul, fleeing Russians mull next step of self-exile’, Al-Monitor, 16 March 2022, available here. Euronews, Türkiye’ye göç eden savaş karşıtı Ruslar yeni bir hayat kurma peşinde, 5 July 2022, available here.
[36] Burcu Karakas, ‘Istanbul: Popular destination for Russian dissidents’, DW, 07 February 2022, available here
[37] Information provided by a stakeholder, March 2024.